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INDIAN RURAL SOCIETY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Indian rural society
1.3 Factors responsible for the origin of villages
1.4 Nature of Indian rural society
1.5 Components of Indian Rural Society
1.6 Change in the Indian rural society
1.7 Summary
1.8 Self Study
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.Can study rural society
2.Can understand the nature of rural society
3.Can study the characteristics of rural society
4. Can understand the direction of radical change
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mahatma Gandhi said that India is a land of villages. Out of the
total countries population 68 % lives in villages. There are more than 6
lakh villages in India. Due to the different geographical conditions the
social and material diversity is found. In olden days due to lack of
transport and communication facilities villages were self -contained and
independent. Villages were the nuclei of ancient India. Rural societies
necessities were fulfilled by the local rural people only. Self -sufficiency
gained firmness because of Balutedari system. Agriculture was the main
occupation. Before the Britishers ca me rural self -sufficiency had been
there for centuries.munotes.in
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slideshare.net
During the British period self -suffic iency and independency of the
rural areas was destroyed. Lots of changes were there in the social
organization. There were changes in the rural society. There was
disintegration in the society. Rural society faced with the problems like
poverty and unemplo yment. The rural financial condition was affected by
Industrialization, Urbanization and Westernization.
1.2 CONCEPT OF RURAL SOCIETY
Rural society has thousands of years old history. Rural community
means people living in a village and rural society me ans people in the rural
areas. In Indian society village is a very ancient residence. Even the Vedas
mention of villages. Rig -Veda has mentioned about village. Ramayana and
Mahabharata mention about village. Manusmriti has discussed about the
structure of a village. Kautilyaarthashastra also has mentioned about the
discussion of rural people.
Before the villages emerged India was covered with dense forests.
Only wild animals lived in this forests which was not safe for human
beings. For safety and securit y people cleared the forests with each other’s
help and started living together in a community. This is how villages
emerged. Because of agriculture a stability came to their life. As a result
permanent type of settlement came into being which depended on
agriculture and monetary planning.munotes.in
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Maharashtrian count ryside, India Stock … alamy.com
In the medieval period villages were Self -sufficient to a great
extent. Factors like Caste system, Joint family system, Balutedari system
played an important role. In modern times the scene that the rural life has
attained Self -sufficiency, living in one place, living in the same
community has changed. Industrialization and Westernization has brought
a change in the lifestyle of the rural people.
Check Your Progress
Q-Explain the concept of rural society by giving some definitions.
1.2.1 Types of Villages
On the basis of stability of the rural community Dr.Anderson has given
three types of villages. They are as follows: -
1. Transient Villages : The village in which the villagers change their
residence every now and then or frequently is called a transient village.
For example : -Scheduled tribes practicing migra tory agriculture, like
Kadar tribe from south India and Baiga tribe from central partof India.
2. Partial Stable Villages: Thevillage in which people stay for a specific
period in one place then after some period change the place to go to some
other area are partial stable villages.
For example: -Naga, Gond, Madia community.munotes.in
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43. Stable Villages: After the development in agriculture the communities
which stayed there permanently and this formed a village. Such villages
are called stable villages.
According to Dr.Iravati Karve there are three types of villages : -
a. Centralized Village: Those villages which have stable communities,
and the houses are very close to each other, having c ommon village area
and the agricultural land is suitable for cultivation. For ex: -Maharashtra
plateau region.
b. Scattered Village: Houses build on both the sides of the road spread
over a long distance.
For ex: -Villages in the konkan region of Mahar ashtra and Kerala state.
c. Small Villages: Limited houses make a hamlet and many such hamlets
together can be called as a village. For ex: -hamlets.
Check Your Progress
Q-What are the different types of villages?
1.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ORIGIN
OFVILLAGES:
Rural society has very important place in the Indian society. In the
olden days villages were Self -sufficient and independent. Therefore this
was considered to be the golden period of the village society. There are
many factors responsible for the origin of villages. These factors are as
follows: -
1) Geographical Factors: Villages were set up only in those areas where
the favorable factors like water, air, climate, land were there. There are
few villages where the climate and other factors are not favourable.
Villages came into being at a faster rate where the factors like fertile land,
the favourable climate, availability of water were available.
2) Economical Factors: Agriculture gave stability to the migratory nature
of human beings. Villages were settled in places where land was fertile
as a result their financial was better than the other regions. Every one
preferred to stay in the fertile land region because the society there was
financially prosper ous.munotes.in
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53) Social Factors: Society without any clashes is one of the factors
responsible for a healthy society. If the social relations in a society are
good and healthy, villages are developed in those areas at a faster rate
and their progress also can be very fast.
4) Co -operation: -Co-operation also is one of the bases of a successful
society. These villages can progress to a great extent.
Check Your Progress
Question -What are the factors responsible for the origin of villages?
1.4 NATURE OF RURAL SOCIETY
Indian rural society has an hereditary age old tradition. History of
emergence of Indian rural society is the history of India. It is because of
agriculture people in the ancient days started to live a settled life. In India
most of the population lives in villages. Compared to the urban areas the
rural life is a little backward. Rural sociology deals the study of rural life
style independently. Thi s is the nature of rural life.
Agriculture depending on the nature and the economic problems
created through it, illiteracy, lack of knowledge or ignorance, traditions
and customs, superstitions. Solving these problems will help in the rural
development . A study of rural society with the following points: -a study
of the difference in the rural and urban areas, family system, caste system,
class structure, rural education etc means understanding the nature of rural
society. While studying this topic foll owing factors have been given
priority.
1) Rural Structure: Based on the geographical factors the study of
different types of villages -scattered villages and clustered villages is
studied while studying the rural society.
2) Rural Social Structure: Different institutions like family institutions,
caste structure, marriage institutions have strengthened the rural
society. As a result this institutions and their changing nature has
importance in rural development.
3) Rural Economic Structure: Agricultu re is the main occupation of the
rural society. So rural economic conditions or structure is controlled by
agriculture.munotes.in
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64) Characteristic Feature of Rural Society: Rural society is very
different from the urban society. Nature has great effect on the rural
society. This society is different due to the occupational structure
practiced i.e. agriculture.
5) Rural Society and its Internal Activities: The factors like
communication pattern of the rural society, nature of communication
between an individual and group, competitions, conflicts in the rural
society are studied here.
6) Rural Reconstruction: Rural society is faced with problems such as
migration, lack of employment opportunities, educational and social
problems. Some measures are to be adopted to solve these problems
and also rural reconstruction is necessary.
From the above discussion descri ption of rural society can be
imagined in detailed. During the British period rural society had a drastic
change. Poverty and unemployment came into existence as the handicraft
industry was demolished. Along with this it was affected with the
problems such as population explosion, illiteracy, customs and traditions,
superstitions and indebtedness. After independence many programs for the
development of the rural society were implemented, but they could not get
success in that. Today also there are many vill ages which lack transport
and communication facilities. Traditional methods are still in practice in
agriculture. Development programs still do not reach these people. Due to
subdivision and fragmentation and lack of industries unemployment
problem is a ve ry serious issue. Villages are becoming vacant due to
migration. A proper decision has to be taken to solve these problems.
Check Your Progress
Question -Explain the nature of rural study?
1.5-COMPONENTS OF INDIAN RURAL SOCIETY
1.5.1 Tribal Community:
There is no universally accepted definition of a tribe. A tribe is a
social group having many clans, nomadic bands and other sub groups
living on a definite geographical area. They have separate language,
separate and singular cultu re.munotes.in
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7According to Imperial Gazetteer of India “A tribe is a collection
of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect,
occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually
endogamous though originally it might have been so.”
According to Oxford Dictionary "A tribe is a group of people in a
primitive or barbarious stage of development acknowledging the authority
of a chief and usually regarding themselves as having a common
ancestor.”
D.N Majumdar defines tribe as “A social group with territorial affiliation,
endogamous with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers
hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect recognizing social
distance with other tribes or castes.”
According to Ralph Linton tribe is a group of bands occupying a
contiguous territo ry or territories and having a feeling of unity deriving
from numerous similarities in a culture, frequent contacts and a certain
community of interests.
Lucy Mair defines tribe as “An independent political division of a
population with a common culture.”
Gillin and Gillin considers any collection of pre -literate local group that
occupies a common general territory speaks a common language and
practices a common culture as a tribe.
L.M Lewis believes that tribal societies are small in scale are restricted in
the spatial and temporal range of their social, legal and political relations
and possess a morality, a religion and worldview of corresponding
dimensions.
Characteristics of the Tribal Community:
1) Definite Common Topography: Tribal people live within a definite
topography which is a common place for all the members of a
particular tribe residing in that region.
Image Courtesy :
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Young_Baiga_women
,_India.jpgmunotes.in
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82) Sense of Unity: If a group living in a particular area and using that area
as common residence, does not possess the sense of unity they cannot
be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true
tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal sense of
unity during the times of war and peace.
3) Endogamous Group: Generally tribal people do not marry outside
their tribe. Marr iage within the tribe is highly appreciated and very
much applauded. But social changes, increasing transport and
communication facilities have changed the attitude of tribal people
resulting in inter -tribe marriages, now a common feature.
4) Common Diale ct:Common dialect is used by a tribe to exchange their
views which strengthens their sense of unity.
5) Ties of Blood -relationship: The greatest bond and most powerful force
inculcating sense of unity amongst the tribals is the blood relation.
6) Protec tion Awareness: A single political authority is established
having all the powers to protect the tribal people from intrusion and
infiltration. The safety of the tribal is left to the skills and mental power
of the person enjoying political authority. Trib e is divided into small
groups headed by its own leader who works according to the directives
received by him from the tribal chief.
7) Distinct Political Organization: Every tribe has its own distinct
political organization to look after the interests of tribal people and the
authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. Whereas in some tribes,
tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging functions
inthe interests of the tribes.
8) Common Culture: Common culture yields a life of homogeneity
amongst the tribal people. Common culture of a tribe awakens from the
sense of unity, common language, common religion and common
political organization.
9) Impo rtance of Kinship: Kinship is the base of tribal social
organization as most of the tribes are divided into exogamous clans and
lineages. Marriages among the tribal people are based on the rule of
tribal endogamy. Tribal people view marriage as a contract and there is
no prohibition on divorce and remarriage.
10) Egalitarian Values: There are no institutionalized inequalities like the
caste system or sex based inequalities in the tribal community as the
tribal social organization is based on the egalitari an principle. Here men
and women enjoy equal status and freedom. Social inequality may be
found to some extent in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a
higher social status, exercise political power and possess wealth.munotes.in
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911) Rudimentary type of Religion: Tribes believe in certain myths and a
rudimentary type of religion. They also believe in totems signifying
objects having mystic relationship with the members of the tribe.
Check Your Progress
Question -What are the c haracteristic features of tribal community?
1.5.2 Rural Community:
While studying rural society it is necessary to study a few
definitions of villages. What is a village or village community can be
understood from the following definitions.
1) T.N. Atre -“ The area which has black and fertile soil and suitable for
farming operations and there are skilled and experienced farmers and
many labourers is called a village.”
2) Anderson -“Rural community resides on the scattered land and village
is the centre for all its activities.”
3) T.N.ATRE -“Cultivation means tilling the land and peasant means
cultivator and the settlement of cultivators is a village.”
4) Pick -“Rural community is a group of people either related or not
related and is like a big family. In this houses are very nearby and there
is agriculture is practiced there. There is barren land spread here and
there. Animals are taken for grazing, the border o f the village is fixed
and people love their land and have a feeling of oneness.”
Characteristic Features of Rural Community:
Rural society has some specific features due to which it can be
distinguished from other societies. Due to these features only villages still
has its existence till today. Some features are as follows.munotes.in
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village and agricultural land ... alamy.com
1) Agriculture is the Main Occupation: Agriculture is the main
occupation of the rural socie ty. As the rural society is directly or
indirectly dependent on agriculture , it is main source of generating
income. Social status, lifestyle level and cultural life depend on
agriculture. Its means agriculture is the way of living of the rural
society. T he status of a person depends on basis of ownership of land
pattern. Reputation and honour is related to agriculture.
2) Natural Geographical Conditions: Due to agriculture rural society
comes in direct contact with the natural geographical conditions or
resources. Due to fertile soil, rivers, forest resources rural society gets
pure air and water. There is no pollution in these areas. Because of
agriculture rural society tries to coordinate with the rural society.
MacIver says that the farmer looks upon nature as crop producer,
pouring rain, bringing disaster, friend or foe.
3) Small Size: Rural society is small in size if compared to its total land
area, population density and agricultural o ccupation. This society is
dispersed in hamlets and small villages. Due to limited job
opportunities rural population is migrating to the urban areas on a large
scale. As a result we see the small size of the rural community.
4) Social Status: Class and caste structure decides the social status of an
individual in the society. Social status in the rural society is based on
the caste structure. The effect of class structure is not much in the rural
society. Due to caste structure marriages take p lace in the caste only as
per traditions and culture. Even the houses are distributed as per the
caste structure. An individual’s life is totally under the control of caste
structure. Every caste has its own independent and peculiar features.
This bond of caste is very strong.
5) Lack of Mobility: Bringing about a change in the caste structure,
culture and traditions is termed as mobility. But rural society is
dominated by the culture and traditions due to which their life is limited
only to a small juris diction. The same age old occupation is carried
forward generation by generation. Also the quality remains the same.munotes.in
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11Because of occupational immobility the rural society has the habit of
sticking to one job only. They are not ready to leave their job or
occupation very easily.
6) Joint Family System: Rural society depends on agriculture and for this
man power is necessary. Therefore the joint family system in the rural
society. In this father is the head of the family. Social, mental and
economic security is obtained because of joint family system. The joint
family system adopts the policy of labour division. Spirit of co -
operation is seen over here.
Joint family in India scroll.in
7) Cultural Life: Rural society has a very rich cultural life. Different
games, Bharud (a long intricate story), Kirtan (the narratio n of a topic
punctuated by music), pravachan (an exposition or lecture) are
included in this. Village temple is the main centre for all the cultural
activities. During the village fair or any festival cultural programs of
dance, ballads and folk songs by a poet and a class of mendicants called
vasudev perform the cultural functions. It is through these cultural
programs cultural tradition is preserved.
8) Status of Women in the Rural Society: As tradition plays an
important role in the rural society the women are deprived of all the
powers. Many restrictions are laid on the women. Her limited area is
the kitchen and children. As the society is male dominated she has no
powers in the decision ma king. Even though by law she has been given
the status of equal rights as per the males, still she is not treated
equally. Due to lack of education, early marriage, ill -treatment she has
to face many problems. Though she is the helping hand to earn the
money she doesn’t have the right to utilize the produced product. In a
family also she has no rights to take decision, she is of secondary
importance.
9)Internal Relationship in the Rural Society: Rural society is small in
size. Therefore a feeling of oneness, affinity, co -operation and
brotherhood is developed among the rural society. Social control has
great effect on it. People in the village have unity among themselves. It
seems as if whole vill age is one family.munotes.in
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1210) Simple and Honest Life: Rural people lead a simple and plain life.
Their financial status is not so good. Their lifestyle does not show off.
Their necessities are limited which results in a simple and leading a
quiet life. They have a feeling of brotherhood and sympathy towards
each other.
11)Balutedari System: It was because of Balutedari system rural society
gained Self -sufficiency. Exchange of goods for goods is the feature of
Balutedari system.
Image of 12 Balutedars dreamvacationsindia.wordpress.com
In this system a specific caste gives service to the society and the
society in turn provides service to this caste in return b y providing him
the source of livelihood. Getting service from others is called
Balutedari system. After independence this system has remained only
by name.
12) Division of Labour: Agriculture is the main occupation of the rural
society. All the people engaged in this occupation are expert in the
agricultural operations like cultivating the land, sowing the seeds,
tilling the crops, cutting the crops. Women also engage themselves in
the agricultural work as soon as they finish their household work.
From this we can say that agricultural operations do not need any
special training as such. They get this education from the family itself.
So special training and skill is not the basis of division of labour, but
it is the sex and age factor which is concerne d.
13) Poverty and Illiteracy: Even though primary education is compulsory
and free due to poverty and ignorance the percentage of education is
very less. Due to lack of education they cannot acquire the skilled
training ,as a result we find lots of unsk illed workers in the rural
society. Economic status or the financial condition is not good due to
unskilled nature of labour. So the rural society is facing the problems of
poverty and indebtedness.
14) Effect of Culture and Traditions: Rural society is religious minded.
There is more effect of culture and tradition and superstitious beliefs onmunotes.in
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13the rural society. Instead of taking patient to the doctor they take him to
the witch doctor. As agriculture depends on nature, to please nature
they perform rites and rituals and it has become tradition. They have
the feeling that whatever happens good or bad it is god’s wish ,so they
spend more on religious functions.
These are the characteristic features of the rural society. From the
above feat ure we get an idea of the rural life.
15) Lack of Individual Initiative: Family members have to follow the
rigid conditions created by the joint family and caste system. As a
result they lack in taking initiative in any of the chores of life.
16) Narrow Mindedness: The village community been separated and
isolated and being left untouched have become narrow minded. They
lack the feeling of national consciousness and the spirit of oneness.
17) Lack of Modern Facilities for Recreation: Villages have no modern
amenities for recreation. They don’t have movie theatres, social clubs
and modern games to play for their children.
18) Inadequate Medical Facilities: Due to inadequate medical facilities
the infant and maternal mortality rate is high. Pri mary health centres or
the medical aid in the rural areas lack modern life saving facilities.
trained nurses and doctors are not available in the remotest rural areas.
Check Your Progress
Q-What are the characteristic features of rural community?
1.5.3 Urban Community:
Urban or Urbane are both derived from the Latin word Urbanus
which means “belonging to a city”. Urbane conveys the meaning of being
“specialized, refined, polite or elegant”. Urban refers to a city or town and
a resident of a city is known as an Urbanite. Urban community is an area
with high density of population, an area having basic requirements, area
having good resources, area that has lots of opportunities of employment
and an area which can be considered as life -giving for luxurious desires of
human or individual. Density should not be considered as a definite term
to confer a name of “urban city” to the particular village, area, land, city,
town etc. There are two main factors that are to be considered while
declaring a community as urban and they are Absolute Population and
Absolute Area. Absolute population is an accurate numerical value with
which the population of a society is estimated. Absolute area refers to amunotes.in
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14specific, fixed point on the earths surface expressed by a coordinate
system.
Characteristic Features of Urban Community:
1) Size: The size of an urban community is much larger than that of a rural
community. In others words we can say urbanity and size of a
community are positively corelated.
Mumbai Tourism | Mumbai Tourist Places ... india.com
2)Density ofPopulation: Density ofpopulation inurban areas isgreater
than inrural areas. urbanity anddensity arepositively corelated.
3) Family: More importance is given to an individual than the family in
the urban community. People in urban areas opt for Nuclear Families.
4) Marriage: Dominance of love marriages and inter -caste marriages is
seen in urban community. Sons and daughters have ample freedom in
choosing their life partners. Great number of divorces are also seen in
the urban areas.
5) Occupation: Major occupations in the urban areas are industrial,
administrative and professional in nature. Divisions of labour and
occupational specia lization in towns / cities / metropolises are much
common.
6) Class Extremes: According to Bogardus “Class extremes characterize
the city.” A town and city has the richest as well as the poorest of the
people. In cities, the slums wherein the poor people live exist alongside
the bungalows of the rich and amidst the apartments of the middle class
members. Most civilized mode of behaviour and the worst racketeering
is found in the cities.
7) Social Heterogeneity: Villages are the symbol of cultural
homogene ity, while the cities symbolize cultural heterogeneity. The
cities are characterized by diverse people, races and cultures and there
is a great variety in regards to the food habits, dress habits, living
conditions, religious beliefs, cultural outlook, cus toms and traditions of
the urban community.munotes.in
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158) Social Distance: In the urban community social responses are
incomplete and half -hearted and there is lack of personal involvement
in the affairs of others. In urban areas social distance is the outcome of
anonymity and heterogeneity. Social contacts in a town or a city are
indifferent and segmentary in character.
9) System of Interaction: According to George Simmel social structure
of urban communities is based on interest groups. Circles of social
contact a re wider in the city and there is a wider area of interaction
system per man and per aggregate making the city life more complex
and varied. The city life is characterized by the predominance of
secondary contacts, impersonal, casual and short -lived relati ons.
10) Mobility: Social mobility is the most important feature of urban
community. In urban areas an individual’s social status is determined
by his merit, intelligence and perseverance and not by heredity or birth.
Urbanity and mobility are positively co-related.
11) Materialism: Social existence of a man revolves around wealth and
material possessions in the urban community. Status symbols like
salaries, financial assets, salaries and costly home appliances counts a
lot for the urbanites. The dignity of an individual in urban area today is
judged not by what he is but by what he has.
12) Individualism: The urban community attach more importance to their
own welfare and happiness than others. They demur to think or act for
the good of others.
13) Rationality: The urban community emphasises more on rationality
and people are inclined to reason and argue. Relationships with others
is administered by the consideration of gain or loss. Relationships are
based on contract basis and once the contract is over, human
relationship automatically comes to an end.
14) Anonymity: As observed by Bogardus the urban groups have a
reputation for namelessness. In urban community nobody knows
anybody and nobody cares for anybody. They don’t care for their
neighbo urs and have nothing to do with their miseries or pleasures.
15) Norm and Social Role Conflict: Norm and social role conflict are the
characteristics of urban community. The size, density and heterogeneity
of the population, extreme occupational specializ ation and the class
structure in the urban context are some factors that lead to such a state
of affairs. As there are no uniform or fixed social norms, individuals or
groups often seek divergent ends which cause social disorganization.
16) Rapid Social a nd Cultural Change: Urban life is characterized by
rapid social and cultural change. The importance attached to traditional
or sacred elements has been accredited to the background. Urban life
benefits have effected changes in respect of norms, ideologies and
behaviour patterns.munotes.in
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1617) Voluntary Associations: The urban community is characterized by
impersonal, mechanical and formal social contacts. They have a strong
desire to develop genuine social relationships to satisfy their hunger for
emotional warmth an d sense of security and for this they form
associations, clubs, societies and other secondary groups.
18) Form Social Control: Social control is formal in nature in urban
community and individuals behaviour is regulated by agencies such as
police, jails, law courts etc.
19) Secularization of Outlook: There is a dilution of ritual and kinship
obligations in cities. Caste and commu nity considerations yield to
economic logic resulting in secularization of outlook.
20)Urban areas provide impulses for modernization in society as a whole.
Check Your Progress
Q-What are the characteristic features of urban community?
1.6 CHANGE IN THE RURAL SOCIETY
After studying the characteristic features we get an idea of the
lifestyle of the rural society. Due to industrialization and urbanization the
process of change has started, but at a slower rate. A change began to
come in the rural community structure and culture. A description of this
changes is given below.
1)Change in the Family Structure: Joint family system prevailed in the
rural society due to agriculture as the main occupation. Minimum three
generations members of the family would work on the farms. Due to
modernization nuclear family system came into being in the place of
joint family system. The head of the family had to loosen his grip of
powers on the family. Lifestyle changed. Self -centred nature and
hereditary rights gave rise to clashes in the family for the property
distribution. This resulted in the separation of views between the family
members.
2)Change in the Marriage Structure: The effect of family institution
was decreased. As a result an individual’s view was given importance
while thinki ng of marriage. Awareness was created among the people
regarding the custom of child marriage and widow remarriage. For themunotes.in
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17want of status lots of expenses are done on the marriage ceremony.
Even the dowry system has increased to a great extent in the soci ety.
3) Change in the Caste and Class Structure: In the modern period many
changes have come in the caste and class structure. For ex. choosing
the occupation or fixing the marriages. Transport and communication
has minimized the dependency on one anothe r.
4) Change in Clothing Habits: A fast Change in the type of clothes worn
by the rural folks and also a change in style of dress is seen in the rural
areas. Use of readymade garments is now becoming more prevalent.
5)Change in Eating Habits: Nowadays sma ll hotels, restaurants, tea
shops have come up in the rural areas. As a result we can see a change
in the food habits in the rural areas.
6)Decline in the Traditional Art: Folk art, folk music, folk dance, rural
theatres are adapting to the modern culture. Mass media like radio,
television, etc. accelerate the pace of change in rural culture.
7)Change in the Consumption Pattern: Development of transport and
communication fac ilities has made the villagers to change their
consumption pattern.
8) Change in the Vocabulary: The availability of various facilities and
modern amenities have cast influence on the vocabulary and the
respective language spoken by the villagers in the rural areas. The
villagers are making use of a host of English terms in their
conversation.
9) Change in the Economic Structure: In the olden days the economic
status of the society was fixed as per the occupation. But due to
modernization decision in c hoosing the occupation, use of modern
methods of agriculture a change has come in the financial status of the
rural society. Due to population explosion subdivision of land increased
at a faster rate. There was an increase in the rural landless labourers.
Rich farmers became more rich and poor farmers became more poor.
10) Change in the Rural Political Structure: Rural politics was
dominated by caste structure. Politics was in the hands of higher caste
people. But the 73rdamendment act gave rights to wo men, scheduled
caste and tribes, nomadic tribes were given right to participate actively
in the Panchayat Raj system i.e. they were given reservations in the
political system.
11) Change in the Education and Entertainment Field: After
independence import ance of education was spread in the rural areas
too. Along with boys girls also started taking education. The percentagemunotes.in
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18of illiteracy decreased due to spread of programs like Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan and Adult Education.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyanshikshaabhiyan.org.in
In olden days rural families were the main center of entertainment.
The source of entertainment in the rural areas are Bhajans, Kirtan,
Pravachan, fairs, folk art. Modernization helped to build a bridge
between rural and urban society, as a result there was a change in the
entertainment pattern. Television, movies were the main source of
entertainment. Formal education has replaced the informal pattern of
education. Educational facilities are made available to the rural masses
through distance education t hrough television. Through
universalization of education, rural masses have access to the different
educational institutions irrespective of caste and religion.
12) Technological Changes: Power and energy have replaced the old
traditional use of animal a nd manual power. They have started using
modern equipment’s running on electricity. Mechanization of
agriculture has been useful to speed up the farming operations. Modern
inputs have enabled the farmers to improve the agricultural operations.
Financial in stitutions and change in agricultural technology enabled the
farmers to raise his standard of living and free themselves from the
clutches of village moneylenders and other land grabbers. The
availability of electricity in the rural areas benefited the saw -mill
owners, flour -mill owners, oil -millers, weavers, cottage industries and
handicrafts, jiggery makers, etc.munotes.in
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19
venngage.net/p/97085/sustainable -development
Natural c onditions, westernization, science and technology are the
other factors responsible for these changes. This has resulted in the
change in lifestyle of rural community.
Check Your Progress
Q-Give reasons for the change in the rural society?
1.7 SUMMARY:
Rural society in the Indian society has great value. Majority of the
population resides in the rural areas. Religious books like Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Rigveda have mentioned about rural society. Depending on
the population size and occupa tional pattern different types of villages are
set up. The progress of the rural society mainly depends on the
geographical factors. Climate, land and water are the main factors. Social
institutions, rural structure, and financial structure is very importa nt in the
rural society. Rural society has its own specific features so it is different
from the other sector of the society. Agriculture is the main occupation
and depending on it are family system, customs and traditions, caste
structure also are importa nt for the rural society. Modernization and
industrialization developed the rural society at a faster rate. Therefore
important changes have taken place in the rural society in the fields of
culture, occupation and education.munotes.in
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201.8 SELF STUDY:
1) Give the special features of the rural society.
2) What is rural society and which factors are responsible for its origin?
3) Write short notes: -
1) Nature of rural society.
2) Types of rural societies
3) Changes in the rural society.
References:
C.H. Shah, Orient Longman, Mumbai, 1991 -“Agricultural
Development in India : Policy and Problem”.
Mishra S. K. &Puri V. K., Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi,
2006 -“Development Issues of Indian Economics”.
Reddy K. Venkata Himalaya Publishing H ouse, 2001 -“Agriculture
and Rural Development -A Gandhian Perspective”.
G. Rajnikanth & R. R. Prasad, Discovery Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2006 -“Rural Development and Social Change”.
www.inflibnet.ac.in http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/tribes/11 -distinctive -
characteristics -of-the-tribes -in-india -essay/4410
munotes.in
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212
INDIAN RURAL SOCIETY II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept of Rural Urban Continuum
2.3 Impact of Rural Community on Urban Community
2.4 Problems of Weaker Sections
2.4.1 Scheduled Caste
2.4.2 Scheduled Tribes
2.4.3 Problems of Women
2.5 Summary
2.6 Self Study
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1.Can study Rural Society.
2.Can study the Concept of Rural Urban Continuum
3.Can study the Impact of Rural Community on Urban Community
4.Can understand the Problems of Weaker Sections.
5.Can study the Problems of Women in the Society
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Rural -Urban continuum i.e. merging of town and country, is a
term that is used in acceptance of the fact that in general there is rarely,
either physically or socially, a sharp division, a clearly marked boundary
between the two, with one part of the pop ulation which is wholly urban
and the other wholly rural. As Professor A. R. Desai has said, ‘Social life
in the country -side moves and devel ops in a rural setting just as social life
in the urban area moves and develops in an urban setting, their respect ive
settings considerably determine rural and urban social life.’ From the
systematic point of view, the characteristics of the rural and urban modes
of living are represented by two concepts namely ‘ruralism’ and
‘urbanism’ respectively. Ruralism signifie s the rural mode of living
dominated by traditions, customs, folk culture and joint family. Whereas
urbanism signifies the urban mode of living which is dominated by
impersonal relations, individualism and secondary associations. Rural
social world and urb an social world are distinct from each other in terms
of two different ethos of life, socio -cultural groupings, cultural patternsmunotes.in
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22and modes of earning and livelihood. Despite the differences there are
structural similarities between the two with regards to the patterns of caste,
rules of marriages, kinship, compliance of religious practices, educational
institutions, migrations, administrations and employment opportunities are
other institutional sources of linkages between rural and urban areas. even
thoug h they are interlinked they are distinct from each other.
2.2 CONCEPT OF RURAL URBAN CONTINUUM:
The concept of rural -urban continuum is based on the assumption
of rural -urban differences. According to G. V. Fuguitt, ‘If rural -urban
sociology is to conti nue a specialized sub -field and has a meaningful
conceptual basis, the need for a new orientation is evident.’
Professor Bertrand observed that ‘Proponents of the continuum
theory feel that rural -urban differences occur in a relative degree in a
range ext ending between two polar extremes of rural and urban.’ Rural
means far away from large towns or cities. Urban means belonging to a
town or city and Urbanization is made more like a town, with more
buildings, industry and business. Continuum means each thin g is closely
related to the thing that is next to it in the order, but the things that are in
the beginning and at the end of the order are very much different from
each other.
https://internationaljournalofresearch.com/2020/07/13/rural -vs-urban -
india/
The continuum theory lays emphasis on the rural -urban differences
rather than on the rural -urban difference of opinion. The dispersal of the
fruits of growth in an economy to all section of the people is known as
‘the trickle down’ effect. The dispersal in terms of space may be seen as
the change from industrial urban centres to the rural countryside a d this
results in rural -urban continuum. The rural -urban differences that are
developed in a unilinear fashion lead to a breakdown of rural -urban
differences . Accordingly one can define three inter -related aspects of
urbanization. First is the sequential sectoral development of the economy.
Secondly the growing concentration of population in areas where
secondary and tertiary activities are located. The third is the dispersal ofmunotes.in
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23the development process leading to the disappearance of rural urban
differences.
Oxford Learner’ s Dictionary has defined the rural -urban
continuum as “A dynamic equilibrium wherein the development process
involves the people in both rural and urban areas and the returns of
development are also distributed to the people whose settlement pattern is
distributed spatially.”
2.3 IMPACT OF RURAL COMMUNITY ON URBAN
COMMUNITY
Migration have both positive and negative effects on the society and
economy. Internal migration affects the place where from people migrate
and the place to which they migrate.
The p ush and pull factors at work are responsible for migration.
Push factors compel a person to leave a place of origin (out -
migration) and migrate to some other place due to different reasons, while
Pull factors are the factors that attract migrants (in -migration) to an area or
destination. Push factors make the person decide to move on his
experience in one place which gives him good reasons to leave it.
Negative things like unemployment, crop failure, floods, droughts, poor
educational facilities, lack of a menities, poor services or war are the push
factors.
Pull factors such as job opportunities, better standard of living,
better educational facilities or good health care are the expectations that
attract people to the new places. Many people choose to mig rate, and they
are called voluntary migrants. Many people are economic migrants. Other
voluntary migrants include older dependants who want to live somewhere
warm and sunny in their retirement. There are many other people who
have no choice and are forced to leave their homes as their lives and
homes might be in danger and they are called involuntary migrants or
refugees.
blog.forumias.communotes.in
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24Effects on Urban Areas:
1. Demographic Effects: Population of working class in urban areas is
increased due to migration. Young men between the age group of 15 –
24 constitute the majority of migrants who are not married and rest
others above this age group are those who have come to urban areas
leaving their families behind at home. As a result, this tendency keeps
fertility at low level than in rural areas and t he other factor responsible
for low fertility rate is the availability of better medical aid and family
planning facilities in the urban areas. Those who settle permanently
with their spouses opt for lesser number of children as it is very costly
to raise the children in urban areas.
2. Economic Effects: Various effects of migration are seen on income and
employment in urban areas depending on the type of migrants who are
usually unskilled. They get jobs in informal sector as carpenters,
masons, tailors, c ooks and other tradesmen, they work as street
hawkers, shoeshine boys, etc. but it is seen that the bulk of employment
in the informal sector is economically efficient and profit making and
earn enough to spend and remit to their homes. Migrants educated u pt o
secondary level find jobs as assistants, shop helpers, machine repairers,
repairing consumer durables or marketing goods. They are also
engaged in other informal activities in small scale industries, are labour
intensive and unregulated. They earn a s ufficient amount to bring them
in the category of common urban people with an income level higher
than the unskilled workers. A small number of migrants coming for
higher education in colleges and institutes to towns and cities find job
in the formal secto r. They get good salaries and can afford a good
standard of loving. They can send large amount of money to their
homes and help in modernizing the rural scenario.
World Economic Forummunotes.in
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25Adverse Effects of Rural –Urban Migration:
A number of adverse effects are seen when people migrate from
rural to urban areas and face innumerable problems in the towns and cities
where the migrants settle. Abundant growth of huge slums is seen and as
ofthese slums and huge neighbour -hoods have no access to municipal
services such as clean and running water, electricity, public services and
sewage system. There is acute shortage of houses in the city, transport
system is not able to meet the demand of the growing population, air,
water & noise pollution has increased to a great extent, increase in the
percentage of crimes and congestion. Despite the best intentions of local
bodies, the cost of facilities that are provided are very high to be met.
There i s tremendous growth in underemployment and
unemployment in towns and cities. Urban migration increases the growth
rate of job seekers relative to is population growth, which in turn raises the
urban supply of labour and on the demand side, there are not en ough jobs
available for the uneducated and unskilled rural migrants in the formal
urban sector. Consequently, there is rapid increase in labour supply but the
lack of demand for such labour leads to chronic and increasing urban
unemployment and underemploy ment.
2.4 PROBLEMS OF WEAKER SECTIONS
Weaker sections can be defined as “ Those sections who
experience a relative weakness in terms of their ability to access their
rights and entitlements, and are deprived of their capacity to lead a quality
life of t heir choice.” The weaker sections of the society are SC, ST and
Women. Article 46 of the Constitution of India expressly provides that the
State shall promote with special care the educational and economic
upliftment of the Weaker Sections of the society, in particular of SCs, STs
& and shall protect them from injustice and from all forms of exploitation.
Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) are among the most
disadvantaged socio -economic groups in India. With its focus on faster,
sustainable a nd more inclusive growth, the 12thfive year plan highlights
that concerns of the poor must be addressed for growth to be inclusive.
2.4.1 Scheduled Caste:
Scheduled castes are those categories in the country that suffer
from extreme social, educational and economic backwardness arising out
of age -old practices of untouchability and certain others on account of lack
of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation, and who need
special consideration for safeguarding their interests and for their
accelerated socio -economic development. These communities were
notified as Scheduled Castes as per provisions contained in Clause 1 of
Article 341 of the Constitution.munotes.in
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262.4.1.1 The problems faced by the Schedu led Castes are as follows:
1. Social Problem: These problems pertained to the concept of purity and
pollution. They were given a very lowposition in the society.
Caste discrimination against Panchayat ...republicworld.com
The higher caste Hindus maintained social distance from them and
were denied of many basic amenities of life accorded to high -caste
Hindus. They depended on the tradition of Hindu for items of food and
drink.
2. Religious Problems: They were denied of the right to enter temples
which were exclusively served by the high -caste Brahmins. They had
no right to worship the gods and goddesses in the temple.
3. Economic Problems: They suffered from many economic problems
and hardships and w ere not given proper rewards for their service.
Traditionally they were deprived of landed property of their own, not
allowed to carry on any business and were not permitted to engage
themselves in the different professions that were being carried out by
the people of other caste. Even they were not allowed to choose any
occupation according to their ability.
yourarticlelibrary.com
Their work included cleaning the streets, removing dead cattle and
undertaking heavy agricultural work. They were landless labourers and
had to work in the fields of high -caste Hindus as labourers.munotes.in
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274. Public Disabilities:
Caste –Wikipedia… en.wikipedia.org
They had to face many public indignities because they were denied
the right to use the public utilities like wells, public transport, educational
institutions.
5. Educational Problems:
Traditionally they were depr ived of getting education and were not
allowed to use public educational institutions.
Caste discrimination -vikaspedia.in
K. M. Pannikar has remarked that “The position of the harijans
was in many ways worse than that of slavery. The slave at least was a
chattel of the master a nd therefore, he stood in an individual relation to his
owner. Considerations of economic self -interest and even human feeling
modified the barbarism of personal slavery. But these mitigating factors
did not apply to the system of untouchability, which was mostly perceived
as a system of communal slave holding. Instead of an individual owning
slave, each village held the untouchable families attached to it in a kind of
slavery. No individual of the higher castes was supposed to have any
personal relations w ith them.munotes.in
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282.4.1.2 Remedial Measures and Constitutional Provisions:
National Commission for the Scheduled Castes (NCSC) is a
Constitutional body that works to safeguard the interests of the
Scheduled Caste (SC) in India. Article 338 ofthe constitution of India
provides for a National Commission for the Scheduled Castes with
duties to investigate and monitor all matters relating to safeguards
provided for them, to inquire into specific complaints and to participate
and advise on the pla nning process of their socio -economic development
etc.
Functions of National Commission for Scheduled Castes
(NCSC) under Article 338 -A:
a) Monitoring and investigating all issues concerning the safeguards
provided for the SCs
under the constitution.
b) Enquiring into complaints relating to the deprivation of the rights
and safeguards of the
SCs.
c) Taking part in and advising the central or state governments with
respect to the planning of
socio -economic development of the SCs.
d) Regular reportin g to the President of the country on the
implementation of these
safeguards.
e) Recommending steps to be taken to further the socio -economic
development and other
welfare activities of the SCs.
f) Any other function with respect to the welfare, protect ion,
development and advancement
of the SC community.
g) The Commission is also required to discharge similar functions
with regard to the Anglo -
Indian Community as it does with respect to the SCs.
h) Till 2018, the commission was also required to di scharge similar
functions with regard to
the other backward classes (OBCs). It was relieved from this
responsibility by the 102nd
Amendment Act of 2018.
Other Constitutional Provisions for the Upliftment of the Scheduled
Castemunotes.in
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29a) Article 15(4) refers to the special provisions for their advancement.
b) Article 16(A) speaks of reservation in matters of promotion to any
class or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of
SCs,which are not adequately represented in the services under the
State.
c) Article 17 abolishes Untouchability.
d) Article 46 requires the State to promote with special care the
educational and economic inte rests of the weaker sections of the
people and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and to protect them
from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
e) Article 335 provides that the claims of the members of the
Scheduled Castes shall be taken int o consideration, consistently with
the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of
appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of
the Union or of a State.
f) Article 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution respectiv ely provide
for reservation of seats in favour of the Scheduled Castes in the House
of the People and in the legislative assemblies of the States.
g)Under Part IX relating to the Panchayats and Part IXA of the
Constitution relating to the Municipalities, reservation for SC in local
bodies has been envisaged and provided.
2.4.2 Scheduled Tribes:
Tribal in India consists of various groups distributed unevenly
across the country and some amongst them are referred to as Scheduled
Tribes. This is because the name of those tribes are contained in the
Schedule 5thand 6thof the constitution and provisi ons are applicable to
those particular groups only. The constitution of India, under Article 342 ,
states that the president of India may “by public notification specify the
tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within tribes or tribal
communit ies which shall for the purposes of this constitution be deemed
to be Scheduled Tribes”.
2.4.2.1 The Problems Faced by the Scheduled Tribes are as follows:
There are a number of socio -cultural and economic problems of the
tribes in India. some common pro blems associated with the tribal are
poverty and exploitation, economic and technological backwardness,
socio -cultural handicaps and problems of their assimilation with the non -
tribal population. The problems of the Indian tribes are as follows:munotes.in
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301) Los s of Control Over Natural Resources: The tribal community
enjoyed straight rights of land ownership and management over natural
resources like land, forests, wildlife, water, soil, fish, etc. Rapid
industrialisation in India and the discovery of mineral an d other
resources in the tribal areas were thrown open to outsiders and the story
of unending miseries for the tribal began. As a result the state took
control over the tribal control. Pressure on land and forests increased
with the impetus to the developm ent process after independence. This
emanated in loss of ownership rights over land, owing to chronic
indebtedness, unscrupulous moneylenders, landlords, moneylenders,
contractors and officials. The tribal community felt themselves
exterminated from their cultural moorings and with no secure means of
livelihood with the concepts of protected forests and national forests
gaining currency.
2) Lack of Education: Education can act as an instrument for the
betterment of the tribal community to ensure greater participation of the
tribal in the development process. There are certain factors like
superstitions and prejudices, extreme poverty, nomadic lifestyle of
certain tribes, lack of suitable teachers and other facilities in the tribal
areas that are inhibiting the tribal community from taking education.
3) Displacement and Rehabilitation: Industrialisation paved the way for
huge steel plants, power projects& large dams and mining activities all
accelerated in the tribal inhabited areas. Large scale displacement of the
tribal population was done due to the acquisition of tribal land by the
government for the projects. The tribal pockets of Chota Nagpur
region, Oriss a, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh were affected to a
great extent. The tribal community were not provided with settlements
within the industrial areas. they were forced to live in the nearby slums
or to migrate to the adjoining states to work as unskilled workers and
live in poverty. Even the cash compensation that was provided by the
government was misspent on wasteful expenditure. Migration to the
urban areas created psychological problems amongst the tribal people
as they were not comfortable to the urba n lifestyle and values.
4) Problems of Health and Nutrition: Economic backwardness and
insecure livelihood have created many health problems in the tribal
people like cholera, tuberculosis, malaria, jaundice, diarrhoea, anaemia,
high infant mortality rate s, low levels of life expectancy, etc.
5) Gender Issues: Degradation of the natural environment through the
destruction of forests, rapidly shrinking resource base made its impact
on the status of women. Exposure of the tribal people to the ruthless
operations of the market economy due to the opening of mining,
industries and commercialization of the tribal belts gave rise to
consumerism and to commoditisation of women.
6) Erosion of Identity: The laws of tribal community and the traditional
institution s come in conflict with the modern institutions creating amunotes.in
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31mistrust amongst the tribal about preserving their identity. The other
cause of concern is the extinction of tribal dialects and languages
indicating an erosion of tribal identity in certain areas.
2.4.2.2 Remedial Measures and Constitutional Provisions:
Major provisions enshrined in the constitution for upliftment of tribal are:
Reservation: Through reservation the tribal groups mentioned in the
schedule are entitled to educational and employmen t benefits which help
them to bring the tribal equivalent with the other communities.
Self-governance: As the tribal culture and beliefs are different from the
rest of the country, precautions have to be taken in order to provide them
governance. Self -governance measures in the form of Tribal Councils,
Autonomous District Councils, PESA etc. will reduce interference in the
tribal areas.
Self-sustenance: Other benefits added through legislative actions include
Forest Rights Act, which provides non -timber economic rights to tribal for
items like Tendu leaves, Mahua flowers, Bamboo Shoots etc. and are also
provided with land rights and prevention from forcef ul eviction from their
lands.
Functions of National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
(NCSC) under Article 338 -A:
Other Constitutional Provisions for the Upliftment of the Scheduled
Tribes
1. To Investigate & Monitor matters relating to Safeguards provided
for STs under the constitution or under other laws or under Govt.
Order, to evaluate the working of such Safeguards.
2. To inquire into specific complaints relating to Rights & Safeguards
of STs.
3. To participate and Advise in the Planning Process relating to Socio -
economic development of STs, and to Evaluate the progress of
their development under the Union and any State.
4. To submit report to the President annually and at such other times
as the Commission may deem fit, upon / working of Safeguards,
Measures required for effective implementation of Programmers /
Schemes relating to Welfare and Socio -economic development of
STs.
5. To discharge such other functions in relation to STs as the
President may, subject to the provisions of any law made by the
Parliament, by rule specify.munotes.in
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326.The Commission would also discharge the following functions in
relation to the protection, welfare and development &
advancement of the Scheduled Tribes , namely:
a) Measures that need to be taken over conferring ownership rights in
respect of minor forest produce to the Scheduled Tribes living in
forest areas.
b) Measures to be taken to safeguard rights to the Tribal
Communities over mineral resources, water resources etc. as per
law.
c) Measures to be taken for the development of Tribal people and to
work for more viable livelihood strategies.
d) Measures to be taken to improve the efficacy of relief and
rehabilitation measures for tribal groups disp laced by
development projects.
e) Measures to be taken to prevent alienation of tribal people from
land and to effectively rehabilitate such people in whose case
alienation has already taken place.
f) Measures to be taken to elicit maximum co -operation and
involvement of Tribal Communities for protecting forests and
undertaking social afforestation.
g) Measures to be taken to ensure full implementation of the
Provisions of Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act,
1996 [40 of 1996].
h) Measures to be taken to reduce and ultimately eliminate the
practice of shifting cultivation by tribal that lead to their
continuous disempowerment and degradation of land and the
environment.
2.4.3 Problems of Women
In Indian society women is consid ered as inferior to men and has
to face various issues and problems in their life and has to go through
many difficulties to prove themselves equivalent to men. They were not
allowed to go outside and participate in the social activities like men and
have to face many difficulties in their daily life and has to struggle a lot to
establish their career. Still higher education is dream for a girl child as
they are considered as the only medium to keep family happy and healthy.
A woman is seen in the society w ith more intense ridicule sight and
become at higher risk of honour killing if she is involved in the love
marriage or inter caste love marriage. In Indian society the patriarchal
system, child bearing and family care roles, cultural norms, domestic
respon sibilities, etc. create lot of challenges for women like they don’tmunotes.in
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33have equal access to autonomy, social freedom, flexibility to move outside
the home, etc. than men. Safety of women matters a lot whether at home,
outside the home or working place. Female infanticide is a common
practice of killing girl child in mother’s womb in the Indian society as
they are considered as burden for their parents and husbands and are here
only to consume money whole life without earning a little bit. Other than
these issu es illiteracy, lack of proper education, household works, rape,
sexual harassment at workplace, etc are some of the big issues for the
women in India.
Women were adored and worshipped as goddesses but later in the
middle age the status of women degraded to a great extent. A lot of
positive changes have occurred in the status of women as the number of
educated people is increasing in the country. Now -a-days, women are
breaking all the barriers of social issues and problems against them in the
society. They are getting ahead and enjoying equality of status in almost
all fields because of being financially independent and economically
sound.
Problems: Women were facing a lot of problems in the male dominated,
patriarchal society system, practice of old tradi tional believes, etc. Women
were responsible to bear the traditional roles like child bearing and child
rearing. Even though in the modern world status of women has improved a
little but still they are facing problems. They have to perform both family
and professional responsibilities together without the help of their
husbands. The condition of women becomes more embarrassed when they
are tortured by their family members instead of getting help. Sexual
harassment is another issue more common at homes as we ll as in the
offices by the family members, relatives, neighbours, friends, boss, etc.
The women have to suffer a lot in their day to day life to nourish their
career as well as saving their family relationships. Earlier women faced
problems like child mar riage, sati pratha, pardasystem, restriction to
widow remarriage, widows exploitation, devadasi system, etc. However,
many of the old traditional problems have disappeared gradually from the
society but gave rise to other new issues. Women are still facing many
problems even after they are given equal rights and opportunities like men
by the Constitution of India and having self -confidence, individuality,
self-respect, personality, capacity, talent, and efficiency more than men.
Some of the major problems faced by modern women are
mentioned below:
Violence Against Women: Everyday violence and being victims of
violence at huge level day by day because of increasing crimes against
women in different ways (according to the report of Crime Record Bureau
of the Central Home Ministry) is disrupting the society. The women faces
violence within the family (dowry related harassment, death, marital rape,
wife-battering, sexual abuse, female genital mutilation, deprivation of
healthy food, etc) or outside the family (kidnapping, rape, murder, etc).munotes.in
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34Gender Discrimination: Women are given less importance as they are
considered as the weaker section of the society and girl child is becoming
the real victim of gender discrimination. Discrimination of power and
work bet ween men and women is also seen due to the patriarchal family
system in India. The effects of gender discrimination on women is seen in
the areas like health, nutrition, care, education, decline of female
population, public life, job, etc.
Problems of Fe male Education: Percentage of educating women in India
is low especially in the rural areas as they are not given the opportunity for
higher education like professional and technical education.
Problems Related to Unemployment: Women face many problems
while searching a suitable job for them as they are more prone to
harassment and exploitation in the work areas. They are given more work
and hard tasks by their boss intentionally. They have to prove their
sincerity, devotion, seriousness and loyalty towar ds work from time to
time.
Women educated or uneducated are prone to divorce and desertion
by their husbands on any stage of life. Dowry system degrades the status
of women to a great extent which is a big problem in the society as they
are illtreated, di srespected, tortured, man -handled and are made to suffer
other cruelties like violence, suicide and murder.
2.4.3.1 Remedial Measures
Safety of women in the past few years has come down due to some
continuous and terrible crimes against them. A decline in the status of
women from ancient period to medieval period is seen in such an
advanced era. Though Indian women have equal rights as men and occupy
almost half population of the country and are involved in half proportion
in the growth and development of the country and are joining high offices
(President, Speaker of Lok Sabha, Union Ministers, Leader of Opposition,
Chief Minister, Governor, etc) yet they are being exploited too. Accordin g
to the Constitution of India, the Indian women have equal rights of
dignity, equality, and freedom from gender discrimination still they are
continuously facing numerous problems such as sexual harassment,
violent victimization through rape, acid attack, dowry deaths, forced
prostitution, and many more.
Women in India are still struggling with the Education and
Economic Development as the female literacy rate is still less than male
literacy rate and this gap is seen more in rural areas than urban areas. the
reason behind this is inadequate school facilit ies, sanitary facilities,
increasing crimes against women, shortage of female teachers, gender
discrimination in the society, etc. Crimes against women in India are in the
form ofchild marriages, domestic violence, forceful domestic work, child
abuse, dowr y deaths, female infanticide and sex -selective abortions, child
labour, honour killings, acid attack, rape, sexual harassment, trafficking,
forced for prostitution, and many more.munotes.in
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35Safety Laws for Women in India:
List of safety laws for women in India wor king in the field to
provide safety to the women from all type of crimes against women.
Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929
Special Marriage Act 1954
Hindu Marriage Act 1955
Hindu Widows Remarriage Act 1856
Indian Penal Code 1860
Dowry Prohibition Act 1961
Maternity Benefit Act 1861
Foreign Marriage Act 1969
Indian Divorce Act 1969
Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971
Christian Marriage Act 1872
Code of Criminal Procedure 1973
Equal Remuneration Act 1976
Married Women’s Property Act 1874
Births, Deaths & Marriages Registration Act 1886
Indecent Representation of Women (Prevention) Act 1986
Muslim women (protection of rights on divorce) Act 1986
Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987
National Commission for Women Act 1990
Prohibition of Sex Selection Act 1994
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005
Prevention of Children from Sexual Offences Act 2012
Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place Act 2013
Another Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Bill, 2015 has
been passed replacing the existing Indian juvenile delinquency law of
2000 (Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000). This
act is passed to lower down the juvenile age from 18 to 16 years in cases
of heinous offense (es pecially after the release of Nirbhaya’s case accused
juvenile).
Constitution of India and Women Empowerment: The Constitution of
India is one of the finest equality documents in the world. It provides
provisions to secure equality in general and gender equality in particular.
Articles in the Constitution safeguard women’s rights by putting them at
par with men socially, politically and economically. The Preamble, the
Fundamental Rights, Directive principles of state policy (DPSPs) and
other constitutiona l provisions provide several general and special
safeguards to secure women’s human rights.
Preamble: The Preamble to the Constitution of India assures justice,
social, economic and political; equality of status and opportunity and
dignity to the individ ual.
Fundamental Rights: The policy of women empowerment is well rooted
in the Fundamental Rights enshrined in our Constitution.munotes.in
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36Article 14 ensures to women the right to equality.
Article 15(1) specifically prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex.
Article 15(3) empowers the State to take affirmative action’s in favour
of women.
Article 16 provides for equality of oppo rtunity for all citizens in matters
relating to employment or appointment to any office.
Being fundamental rights they are justiciable in court and the
Government is obliged to follow the same.
Directive Principles of State Policy: Directive principles of State Policy
contains important provisions regarding women empowerment and it is
the duty of the government to apply these principles while making laws or
formulating any policy.
Af e wa r e :
Article 39 (a) provides that the State to direct its policy towards securing
for men and women equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
Article 39 (d) mandates equal pay for equal work for both men and
women.
Article 42 provides that the State to make provision for securing just and
humane conditions of work and for maternity relief.
Fundamental Duties: Fundamental duties are enshrined in Part IV -Ao f
the Constitution and are positive duties to be fol lowed by the Indian
people. It also contains a duty related to women’s rights: Article 51 (A) (e)
expects from the citizen of the country to promote harmony and the spirit
of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India and to renounce
practices dero gatory to the dignity of women.
Other Constitutional Provisions: Through 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendment of 1993, a very important political right has been given to
women which is a landmark in the direction of women empowerment in
India. With this amendment women were given 33.33 percent reservation
in seats at different levels of elections in local governance i.e. at
Panchayat, Block and Municipality elections. These Constitutional
provisions are very empowering for women and the State is duty bou nd to
apply these principles in taking policy decisions as well as in enacting
laws.
Specific Laws for Women Empowerment in India were enacted by the
Parliament in order to fulfil Constitutional obligation of women
empowerment:munotes.in
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37The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.
The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956.
The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961.
The Medical termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971.
The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.
The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.
The Pre -Conception & Pre -Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation
and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994.
The Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention,
Protection and) Act, 2013.
Specific Laws for Working Women along with several other laws not
only provide specific legal rights to women but also gives them a sense of
security and empowerment.
Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition
Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1976
Employees State Insurance Act, 1948
Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
Factories (Amendment) Act, 1948
Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Amended in 1995)
Plantation Labour Act, 1951
2.5 SUMMARY
Rural -Urban continuum i.e. merging of town and country, is a
term that is used in acceptance of the fact that in general there is rarely,
either physically or socially, a sharp division, a clearly marked boundary
between the two, with one part of the population which is wholly urban
and the other wholly rural. A number of adverse effects are seen when
people migrate from rural to urban areas and face innumerable problems
in the towns and cities where the migrants settle. Abundant growth of
huge slums is seen and as of these slums and huge neighbour -hoods have
no access to municipal services such as clean and running water,
electricity, public services and sewage system. Weaker sections can be
defined as “Those sections who experience a relative weakness in terms of
their ability to access their rights and entitlements, and are deprived of
their capacity to lead a quality life of their choice.”
The Department of Women and Child Development functions well
in this field for the proper development of the women and child in India.
Empowering women is the main motto of the development department
because an empow ered mother with child makes the bright future of any
nation. Despite of formation of various effective rules and regulations by
the Indian government to handle and control the crimes against women,munotes.in
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38the number and frequency of crimes against women are incr easing day by
day. Women status in the country has been more offensive and dreadful in
the last few years.
2.6 SELF STUDY
Q-1 Explain the Concept of Rural Urban Continuum.
Q-2 What is the Impact of Rural Community on Urban Community?
Q-3 Write short not e on-Problems of Weaker Sections.
Q-4 What are the problems faced by the Scheduled Castes
Q-5 Give an account of the Remedial Measures and Constitutional
Provisions for Scheduled Castes.
Q-6 What are the Functions of National Commission for Scheduled
Castes (NCSC) under Article 338 -A?
Q-7What are the problems faced by the Scheduled Tribes?
Q-8 Answer in short –The Remedial Measures and Constitutional
Provisions for Scheduled Tribes.
Q-9What are Functions of National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
(NCSC) under Article 338 -A?
Q-10 What Problems are faced by Women in India?
Q-11 What remedial measures are adopted to solve the problems of
women in India?
Q-12 Write short -note on Other Constitutional Provision s made for
women in India.
References:
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valid. https://ncst.nic.in/content/functions -commission
https://www.insightsonindia.com
https://in.one.un.org/task -teams/scheduled -castes -and-scheduled -tribes/
http://www.mcrhrdi.gov.in
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/rural -urban -continuum -
meaning -and-definitions -2/4710
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/39215/1/Unit -4.pdf
National Commission for Scheduled Castes -Drishti IAS
https://www.drishtiias.com › daily -news -analysis › natio...
https://www.yourarticlelibrar y.com/society/problems -of-scheduled -castes -
in-india -short -essay/4083
https://www.sociologydiscussion.com/rural -sociology/rural -urban -
continuum -study -notes -rural-sociology/2625
https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue -pdf/14036.pdf
munotes.in
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393
RURAL INSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of Religion
3.3 Features of Religion
3.4 Main Factors of Religion
3.5 Functions of Religion
3.6 Importance of Religion
3.7 Concept of Education
3.8 Objectives of Education
3.9 Functions of Education
3.10 Summary
3.11 Self Study
3.0 OBJECTIVE
1) To understand the concept & features of religion
2) To study the main factors of religion
3) To study the functions and importance of religion
4) To understand the concept of education
5)To study the objectives and functions of education
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Religion is one of the earliest institution of human society and an
important social institution. Religion has been influencing hum an life and
human society both primitive and modern since ancient days. Each and
every aspect of human life and human society is influenced by religion. It
is very difficult to trace the exact origin of religion. Different scholars
have put forth divergent views about origin. Religion as an institution
plays an important role in society and imparts belief and patterns of
behaviour.
Religion is related to the mysteries of human existence. Madan and
Mazumdar have explained the origin of the term religion. T hey said that
the term religion is derived from two root words –‘Leg’ means to gather,
count or observe and ‘Leg’ means ‘to bind’. Religion is a belief in
supernatural power. It refers to the performance of practices that binds
together or links human bei ngs with the unseen super power. Religion ismunotes.in
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40the human response to the apprehension of something of power, which is
supernatural and super sensory. Religion is the expression of the manner
and type of adjustment effected by the people with their conception of the
supernatural. Belief and rituals are the two main components of religion.
Beliefs are a charter for rituals and rituals consists of certain actions
designed to establish liaison between the performing individual and the
supernatural power. Religion involves a set of symbols invoking feelings
of reverences or awe are linked to rituals practiced by a community of
believers.
3.2 CONCEPT OF RELIGION:
Religion is a complex phenomenon which includes a complex of
emotional feelings and attitudes towards mysteries and perplexities of life.
The meaning of religion in sociological sense is much wider than that of
the meaning used in religious books and scriptures. In sociological sense
religion is defined as “Those institutionalized systems of beliefs, symb ols
values and practices that provide groups of men with solutions to their
questions of ultimate being”. Thus we can say religion comprises of
systems of attitudes believes, symbols which are based on the assumption
that certain kinds of social relations are sacred or morally imperative and a
structure of activities governed or influenced by these systems.
Definitions :
1)According to Mac lver, “Religion as we understand the term implies
relationship not merely between man and man but also between man
and some higher power”.
2)According to Emile Durkheim, “Religion is a unified system of beliefs
and practices relating t o sacred things, that is to say, things set apart
and forbidden”.
3)According to Ogburn, “Religion is attitudes towards superhuman
powers”.
4)According to J. M. Frazer, “Religion is a belief in powers superior to
man which are believed to direct and co ntrol the course of nature of
human life”.
5)According to A. W. Green, “Religion is a system of beliefs and
symbolic practices and objects, governed by faith rather than my
knowledge which relates man to and unseen supernatural realm beyond
the known and beyond the controllable”.
6)According to H.M. Johnson, “Religion is a more or less coherent
system of beliefs and practices concerning a super -natural order of
beings, forces, places or other entities”.munotes.in
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417)According to Malinowski , “religion is a mode of action as well as a
system of belief and a sociological phenomenon as well as a personal
experience”.
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Though, different scholars define religion according to their own
view it is very difficult to agree upon a universally accepted definition that
will satisfy everyone. It is difficult to define religion as it is a very
complex phenomenon.
Q-Explain the concept of religion.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________ _______________________________
________________________________________ ____________________
___________________________________________________________ _
3.3 FEATURES OF RELIGION:
Religion and its associated aspects such as ritual and magic
influence rural India in many ways. Rural community is essentially caste -
ridden. In re ality in rural areas caste and religion are inseparable. The
origin of the caste system emerges from religion. There is a close
association between the rural society and religion. The characteristics of
religion are as follows:
1)Gods and Goddesses: Being a secular country people in India worship
gods and goddesses of their own choice. People from different religion
worship gods and goddesses of their own religion. Every village have their
own rural gods and goddesses. The villagers worship them with prof ound
devotion and unflinching faith.
2)Worship of Plants, Trees and Animals: In India Tulsi plant is looked
upon as divine and it is essential for all religious ceremonies and it’smunotes.in
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42has medicinal properties. The banyan, neem, pipal trees are also
regarde d as divine and are worshipped. They also are used as medicine.
Indians worship animals for religious purposes and are treated as
divine.
3)Faith in Ghosts and Witches: People often attribute every unusual
happening either to ghost or to witch due to th eir belief in them. Many
a times people fail to grasp the cause and consequences of certain
natural happening. The person possessed by a ghost or witch become
abnormal and behave in a strange manner and to treat them all sorts of
physical torture are infli cted on the person possessed by ghost or witch.
In mitigating the sinister effects of the wicked souls the witch doctor
plays an important role to a great extent.
4)Belief in Good Souls: People not only confine their respect to gods and
goddesses but also extend their faith and belief to good souls. Each
good soul is either a saint or a higher spiritual being. The good souls
are philanthropic and helpful nature and help people in different ways.
All kinds of sacred gifts and flowers are offered to the good souls
during worship to win their favours and blessings.
5)Belief in Dreams: The belief in the dreams and its importance is
universal, but the interpretations and explanations of dream sv a r y
widely in different places. Every dream has its own interpretation,
meaning, dimension and impact. Though there is no clear definition of
the concept of dream, people tend to add some meaning to dreams in
order to corelate it to their day -to day act ivities due to lack of
education.
6)Superstitions in Natural Phenomena: People attribute all kinds of
superstitions to natural phenomena. Solar or lunar eclipse is considered
something unnatural and supernatural, scanty or less rain is considered
to be a n act of some supernatural power. So they worship gods and
goddesses to save them from such calamities.
7)Assumptions Concerning the Supernatural: People have number of
assumptions relating to supernatural things. They have deep faith in
concepts such a s heaven, hell, sin, virtue, salvation, rebirth, immortality
of the soul, transmigration of the soul and many more. It is believed
that the one who performs good deeds lead a peaceful, blissful and life
full of serenity and the one who is indulged in undes irable activity
leads a sorrowful life. It is also believed that good and bad deeds follow
an individual even after his death.
8)Notions of the Auspicious and Inauspicious: Certain ceremonies are
to be performed on a particular day and in particular mont h as they are
considered auspicious. In other words it is said that a particular work
and ritual necessitate the determination of a particular auspiciousmunotes.in
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43moment. For marriage ceremonies certain months and certain days are
considered to be auspicious. Certa in days in a week are considered to
inauspicious to undertake a journey in particular direction.
9)Considerations of Good and Bad Omens: Religion attaches
importance to good and bad omens. Sneezing at the time of starting a
journey or any good work is co nsidered to be a bad omen. The sight of
a dead body, while going for some work is considered to be a good
omen. Certain remedial measures are undertaken by the people to
remove the effect of bad omen with the help of priests.
Q-Give the features of reli gion.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________ ______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________ __________________________________________ ________
3.4 MAIN FACTORS OF RELIGION
According to Anderson and Parker religion mainly consists of for
primary components.
a)Belief in Supernatural Power: Every religion believes in some
supernatural power and they influence the human life and conditions.
b)Mans Adjustment to Supernatural Powers: It is another factor of
religion. As man is dependent on these supernatural power’s he has to
adjust himself t o the powers. So every religion provides for some
external acts or rituals such as prayers, hymns, prayers etc. Non -
performance of these rituals is regarded as sinful.
c)Acts Defined as Sinful: It is another factor of religion. Every religion
defines som e acts as sacred while some as sinful which destroy the
harmonious relationships between man and god.
d)Method of Salvation: Every religion considers salvation as the
ultimate aim of life. Man needs some or the other method by which he
can attain Salvat ion or Nirvana or a method in which harmony between
man and god will be re -established by the removal of guilt or bondage.
e)Belief in Some Sacred Thing: Every religion believes in some holy or
sacred things that are symbolic constitute the center of re ligion and this
belief is based on faith.munotes.in
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44f)Procedure of Worship: Every religion has its own prescribed
procedure of worshipping and the follower of religion worship the
supernatural power either in the form of statute or in a formless
manner.
g)Place of Worship: There is a definite place of worship for people or
followers in every religion to offer prayer to the supernatural power.
Q-What are the main factors of religion?
________________________________ ____________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________ ____________________________________________
______________________________________________ ______________
3.5 FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
Religion is the basic requirement of group and is a cultural
universal as it fulfils many basic functions within human societies. In
sociological terms religion includes both manifest (open and stated) and
latent functions. The manifest functions of religi on include defining the
spiritual world and give meaning to the divine. Religion provides
explanation for the events that seem difficult to understand. While latent
functions of religion are intended, covert or hidden. Functionalist suggest
that religion i s required for both society and individual as it serves both
manifest and latent functions.
These functions are as below:
1. Religion as an Integrative Force: According to Durkheim the primary
function of religion was to preserve and solidify society. R eligion
functions to reinforce the collective unity or social solidarity of a
group. Sharing the same religion or religious interpretation unites
people in a cohesive and building moral order. This social cohesion
east developed through rituals such as rec iting prayer in the honour of
God, institutions of worship and multitudes of observances and
ceremonies practiced by different groups. These unifying rituals of
different faiths are also observed on the most significant occasions such
as birth , marriage a nd death. Durkheim was particularly concerned
with the perplexing question, “How can human societies be held
together when they are generally composed of individuals and social
groups with diverse interest and aspirations.” In his view, delicious
bonds oft en transcend these personal and divisive forces. Certain
ultimate values are given to the people and it ends to hold in common.
The feelings of nationalism or patriotism also serve like the integrativemunotes.in
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45force of religion. In contemporary industrial societie s people are also
bound together by laws, ways of life, patterns of consumption and other
forces.
2.Religion Provides Religious Experience: The basic function of
religion is to provide religious experience through prayer, wor ship and
meditation. Throug h these means man expresses awe, reverence,
gratitude and allegiance to the Almighty or the God, or the
Supernatural Force. When an individual comes into contact with the
supernatural forces he undergoes some sort of peculiar, inexplicable
experience. He converses with the divine through prayers and forgets
the worldly life and its problems. This religious experience enables the
human desires, ideals and values to facili tate the development of
personality, sociability and creativeness.
3.Religion Provides Peace ofMind: Themost desired peace ofmind
foranindividual isgiven byreligion. Religion isalways there for
consolation and peace ofmind atevery crisis beitpersonal or
collective. Itpromotes goodness andhelps todevelop thecharacter.
Religion acts asthehealer oftheillsoflifeand reduces one’s
grievances toanextent intheworld that isfullofuncertainties,
indefiniteness, dangers, insecurit iesand unhappiness. Emotional
support isgiven totheindividuals byconsoling when disappointed
andreconciling when estranged from goals andnorms ofsociety in
theface ofuncertainty. Religion supports established values and
goals andreinforces themorale andoffers inspiration, hope, faith,
optimism andcourage tothepeople.
4. Creating a Moral Community: Religion provides a system of beliefs
amongst people in order to have their personal beliefs reinforced by the
group and its rituals. The one who shares a common ideology develop a
collective identity and a sense of fellowship. Members of moral
community share a common life and gives rise to social community
through the symbolism of the sacred that supports the more ordinary
aspects of social life. Religion legitimizes society and provides sacred
sanction for the social order and for its basic values and meanings.
5. Religion as Social Control: Religion is one of the forms of informal
means of social control that regulates the activities of people in its own
way and prescribes rules of conduct for people to follow. Religion has a
great disciplinary value. The conceptions of spirits, ghosts, taboos,
souls, commandments, sermons, etc., control human actions and
enforce discipline. Ideas of hell and h eaven have strong effect on the
behaviour of the people. Religion has its own methods to deal withmunotes.in
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46those individuals who violate its norms and its own ways to reintegrate
the disobedient into the social group. Religious sanctions are widely
used to support the ethical codes and moral practices amongst
individuals.
Frank E. Manuel (1959) had said that ‘religion was a mechanism which
inspired terror, but terror for the preservation of society.’ Conservatives
have valued religion for its protective function a nd radicals have often
recognized that religion can be a support of the established order, and
have, consequently, being critical of religion. Friedrich Engels, close
associate of Karl Marx, noted that religion could make the masses
‘submissive too the beh ests of the masters it had pleased God to place
over them.’ Durkheim also emphasized that Besides acting as an
integrating force, religion also reinforces social control in oppressive
society.
Religious beliefs influence the conduct of those who believe in and
keeps people ‘in line’ through folkways and many more. It provides a
foundation for mores of society. Religious approvals are taken for
certain desirable patterns of behaviour to prevail in the society in the
forms of more. Many taboos in various cu ltures have religious
approvals, e.g. the taboo against eating cows meat in Hindus, pork in
Jewish and Muslims.
6.Religion Promotes Social Solidarity, Unity and Identity: Religion
unites people and upholds and validates the traditional ways of the life.
Common faith, com mon value -judgements, common sentiments,
common worship are significant factors in unifying people. People try
to identify themselves as having something in common by participating
in religious rituals and worships. Religion affects an in dividual’s
understanding of who they are (people) and what they are.
As Davis points out, “Religion gives the individual a sense of identity with
the distant past and the limitless future.” As Thomas F. O. Dea says,
“In periods of rapid social change and large -scale social mobility, the
contribution of religion to identify may become greatly enhanced.” As
A.W. Green has pointed out religion is “The supremely integrating and
unifying force in human society.”
7.Religion Provides Rites ofPassage, Recreat ionand Emotional
Support :Religion helps us to perform ceremonies and rituals related to
rites of passage (marriage, birth, death and other momentous events)
giving meaning and social significance to our life. Religion promotes
recreation through religious lectures, Kirtans, dramas, dance, music,munotes.in
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47bhajans, puranas, harikathas, fairs, festivals, musical concerts, art
exhibitions and so on. Various religious festivals and rituals provide
relief to the disturbed min d and tries to make men sorrow less and
fearless. Religion gives a sense of comfort and solace to the individuals
during times of personal or social crisis such as serious injury, death of
loved ones, etc. Religion gives the people emotional support and
provides consolation, reconciliation and moral strength during trials
and defeats, personal losses and unjust treatments. It provides the
means where in man can face the crisis and difficult situations of life
with strength and fortitude.
Thomas O’Dea (1970 ) wrote, ‘Men need emotional support in the face of
uncertainty , consolation when confronted with disappointments and
anxiety.’ visiting places of worship and holy places serve as the outlets
to release tension and stress. Religion also offers consolation to
oppressed peoples by giving them hope that they can achieve salvation
and eternal happiness in the afterlife. The attitude that ‘God will
provide’ increases because of religion.
8. Religion Serves a Means to Provide Answers to Ultimate Questions:
All religions have certain notions and beliefs that provide answers to
the questions like why are we here on earth? What happens after death?
Is there a supreme power? These beliefs are based on the faith that life
for the purpose, and there is something or someone which controls
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the universe. Religion defines the spiritual world and gives meaning to the
divine. Religion provides an explanation for events that seems difficult
to understand.
9.Religion Conserves theValue ofLife: Religion defines and redefines
the values and is an effective means of preserving the values of life.munotes.in
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48Moral, spiritual and social values are greatly sup ported by religion and
it exercises a tremendous influence over the younger ones and their
behaviour.
Through agency like the family, religion inculcates the values of life in the
minds of the growing children. Further, as Thomas F.O’Dea says,
“Religion sacralises the norms and values of established society”. It
maintains the dominance of group goals over i ndividual impulses.”
10. Religion as a Source of Identity: Religion gives individuals a
profound and positive self -identity. It enables the individuals to cope
effectively with the doubts and indignation of everyday life. Religion
helps the people to al leviate the frustrating experiences of life with
sometimes may force a person to commit suicide. It suggests people
that they are not worthless or meaningless creatures. According to
Thomas Luckman (1983), ‘The prime function of religion is to give
persona l meaning to life.’ In the rapidly changing world religious faith
often provides an important sense of belonging. Religion helps to
integrate newcomers by providing a source of identity in industrial
societies.
11.Priestly Function ofReligion: Religi on contributes to the stability
and order of the society by performing its priestly functions. Religion
offers a kind of relationship through different kinds of worship and
beliefs and provides the emotional ground for a new security. Religion
provides sim ilar points of opinion and avoids conflicts through its
authoritative teaching of beliefs and values and contributes to the
maintenance of the status quo.
12. Legitimating Function of Religion: According to Max Weber (1930),
“Religion may be used to explain , justify or rationalize the exercise
of power. It reinforces the interests of those in power in societies not
as visibly ruled by religious dogma, religion legitimates the political
sector. F or example, India's traditional caste system define the social
structure of society. Marx has acknowledged that religion plays an
important role in legitimating the existing social structure. The values
of religion fortify other social institutions and the social order as a
whole and as a result it perpetuates social inequality in society.
13.Religion Promotes Welfare: Religion renders service to the people,
promotes their wel fare and appeals to the people to be sympathetic,
merciful and co -operative. I t rouses in them the spirit of mutual help,
co-operation and awakens the philanthropic attitude of the people. It
reinforces the sense of belonging to the group, promotes art, culture
and provides means for the development of character on the rightmunotes.in
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49lines. Different religious organisations are engaged in various social,
educational, aesthetic, cultural, civic, medical, and other activities.
14. Psychologizing Religion: The notion of positive thinking provides
peace of mind , promises prosperity and success in life as well as
effective and happy human relations. It is also a source of security and
confidence, happiness and success in this world. Religion can
sometimes be debilitating and personally destructive, as it is seen that
a person convinced of his own essential wickedness can suffer from
extreme personal difficulties. Kingsley Davis (1949) noted that ‘like
other medicines, Religion can sometimes make worse the very thing it
seeks to remedy. Religion is not always harmful many times, it serves
as a libe rating and integrating force for individuals.
15. Religion Acts as Psychotherapy: In modern world religion supports
psychology -a form of psychotherapy. The hopeful perception that
God is conceived of as a human and consider it God helps the sufferer
to alleviate personal and social crisis.
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A new vocation of religious practitioner in the field of mental health
has come up as a helping professional. It already existed in rural India
and other places in the form of priests , shaman's (super -humans
endowed with supernatural powers in some trib al societies ) and
magicians.
16.Religion Explains Individual Suffering and Helps toIntegrate
Personality: Man is a rational as well as an emotional creature and
has never lived by knowledge alone. The things for which men strive
in this world are in some measure denied to them. No individual can
escape frustration with a multiplicity of goals, but the culture provides
him with goals that anybody can reach. The greater the
disappointment once in life the greater the faith in the next. Religionmunotes.in
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50tries to give release from the very thing it in stills, guilt and ritual
means are freely provided for wiping away guilt, so that one can
count on divine grace.
17. Religion as an Agent of Social Change: Religion supports the status
quo in its priestly function a nd inspires great change in its prophetic
function. It enables an individual to transcend forces; to act in ways
other than those prescribed by the social order. Religion in its
prophetic function provides individuals with an unshakable
foundation of socia l criticism that later on becomes the basis of social
change. Religion is regarded as an impediment in the path of social
change but many religious groups, by criticising the existing rules of
social morality & social injustice, community or government a ctions
help in bringing about social change. Max Weber has done pioneering
work on the relationship between economy and the religion. Weber's
major theoretical point is that ideas can change history and can
contribute to changes in the material context of life.
ulc.org
The effects of religion on society are unpredictable and varied despite
establishing relationship between religious ethic and economy.
Sometimes it may have Conservatory effect or it might contribute to
social change. In Marx opinion religion impedes socia lc h a n g eb y
encouraging oppressed people to focus on other worldly concerns
And not on their immediate poverty or exploitation. He said, ‘religion
is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the feelings of heartless world
…it is the opiate of the people.’ Marx see religion as a consequence of
the economy and Webber believed that religion helped to shape a new
economic system.
18.Religion Enhances Self-importance: Religion expands the self to
infinite proportions and religious belief relates the self to the infinite ormunotes.in
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51Cosmic Design. It is through unity with the infinite the self is ennobled
and made majestic. Man considers himself the noblest work of God
with whom he shall be united. His self thus becomes grand and
elevated.
19. Religion as an Agent of Depoliticization : According to Bryan
Wilson (1976), religion functions as an agent of de -politicization.
Marxists suggest that religion lessens thepossibility of collective
political action if a false consciousness is induced among the
disadvantaged. In simple words we can say religion keeps people away
from seeing their lives and societal conditions in political terms.
20. Religion Controls Sexuality: According to B. Turner (1992),
‘religion has a function of Controlling the sexuality of the body, in
order to secure the regular transmission of property via the family.’
Religious control of sexuality is an important vehicle for the
production of legitimate offspring.
In spite of being regarded as superstition, religion is persisting as a
social institution for Long time because of its varied functions and
performs for the welfare of both the individual and the society. The
educated people also regard religious laws as superior to the man -
made laws. In primitive, traditional and some sections of modern
societies consider religion is a pervasive matter and religious beliefs
and rites play an important part in the activities of various kinds of
groups -from family to occupational gro ups. Though inhabitants and
citizens live in a modern society, they remain traditional in the
religious and moral outlook But some feel that religious authority and
principles override that of secular law.
Q-Give the functions of religion.
________ ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________ _________________________________________________
_________________________________________ ___________________
3.6 IMPORTANCE OF RELI GION
Religion has been an important part of the countries culture
throughout the Indian history. Religious diversity and religious tolerance
are both established in the country by the law and custom. The
constitution of India has declared the right to freedom o f religion to be a
fundamental right. Religion is one of the fundamental organisations of any
general public. It can be characterised as, “a social framework in which
there is regular confidence, revere, ceremonies, traditions and customs.”munotes.in
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52The meaning of religion given by Durkheim is an all -round
acknowledged definition, “Religion is a brought together arrangement of
convictions and practices with respect to holy thing which join into one
single good group.” Religion acts as an agency of socialization. I t helps in
creating an ethical framework and also a regulator for values in day to day
life and this particular approach helps in building character of a person.
Religion helps in building values like love, empathy, respect and harmony.
India is known for its religious diversities. All the significant religions of
the world, viz. Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism and
Jainism are found in India.
Religion today has taken a much -institutionalized form. In
sociological terms, ‘religion is a sys tem of sacred beliefs and practices
both in the tangible and intangible form.’ Religion can serve The dual role
of ideology as well as institution. But today, religion has assumed a more
narrow -minded approach. Each religion has festivals , traditions ,
mythologies forming a part of the tangible and intangible heritage of the
country. Religion plays a crucial role for a person in giving a cultural
identity. Thus we can say religion contributes to protect this heritage and
also adds to the diversity in the c ountry.
People are always on the chase of fulfilling the economic and
material pursuits in today's world. Religion plays a crucial role in
establishing our connection to the divine supreme power and developing
the belief that there is a supreme energy th at acts as a regulator in our day
to day lives. The components of prayer, chants, hymns, etc. creates the
spiritual bond. Each and every religion promotes it's philosophy and the
core of it has always been the welfare and Wellness of the people.
According to the idea of welfare Vasudaiva Kutumbakam means the
whole world is a family and Sarve Sukhina Bhavantu means let everyone
be happy nurtures and cultivates love and compassion in the society.
Religion Plays an Important Role in Social Matrix:
1.Agricultural economy depends on religion. Religious influence is
discernible important economic activity of village life like sowing,
protecting and harvesting of crops. On all such occasions religious
ceremonies in the form of Pooja Mela or Kirtan are con ducted to
propitiate natural forces.
2.Religious outlook dominates many aspects of peoples life. The mindset
and activities of the people for the most part are governed by religion
and rituals. Religious norms have significant bearing On the social,
economic , political , recreational and cultural life of the people. Themunotes.in
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53significance of religion is highlighted with the provision for the
worship of a deity.
3.Priestly leadership dominates the social scene. The customs, traditions
and conventions are m ostly laid back down by the priestly class
especially the brahmins.
Q-What is the importance of religion?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________ _____________ _________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
3.7 EDUCATION:
Education is a lifelong process by which we learn new ways of
actions and thoughts. It encourages changes in behaviour which aims at
improving the human conditions. Education plays a vital role in
introducing the culture of the society among the students. Social
psychologist R. S. Barth writes, “A schools culture has far more influence
on life and learning in the school house than the state Department of
Education, the Superintendent, the school board or even the principal can
never have.” Education is not a mechanical activity of information
transmission and learning cannot be confined to the four walls of the
classroom. As stated by Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan “The end product of
education should be a free creative man who can battle against historical
circumstances and adversities of nature.” Education is a process by
which the society through schools, colleges, universities and other
institutions deliberately transmits its cultural heritage. Culture is the
content of education and has a bearing on the school administration.
The Indian culture has traditionally viewed education and related
institutions as temples of learning. Post -independence, we modernised our
schools and colleges, first through public and government funding and
later through pri vate funding. By the end of 20th century, there were a
large number of both public and private institutions that were set up to
meet the growing demand of education from the ever increasing student
population in India. But, in the pursuit of providing educ ation for all, very
few institutions have sustained both quality and the values that were
hallmarks of the traditional Indian education. Fundamentally strong higher
education relates to the prosperity of the nation. Many world leaders have
pointed out that Indian students are good in maths and science.munotes.in
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54
education initiatives taken by the govt ... indiatoday.in
Character building and strong grounding in India's culture, history,
traditions and customs have to be essential components of the education
system. The importance of education is not only in knowledge and skill,
but it i s to help us to live with others. We need to accept all that is good
from different quarters, but remain rooted to our past. We should
introspect, rejuvenate and move ahead by introducing changes in
accordance with the changing time. The goal of education should not only
be to get employment but also lead to enlightenment and empowerment of
the individual by fostering humane qualities. As Dr. Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan has said ‘knowledge gives us power, love gives us
fullness.’ We should have concerns not o nly for the homo sapiens but also
for all the living beings and nature. This universal message is explicitly
contained in India's age old world view of ‘Sarva Jana Sukhino Bhavanthu
and Vasudaiva Kutumbakam.’
Teacher plays an important role in building a lliterate, enlightened
and human society. Heis the guru , mentor, guide friend and philosopher
of the student. The Guru Shishya Parampara of the ancient Gurukul
system encapsulated this philosophy.Indian education system improved
with the establishment of Universities like Nalanda, Takshashila, Ujjain
and Vikramshila. Even though technology has greatly enhanced teaching
and learning processes, it can never replace the guru who is an
embodiment of knowledge and wisdom. In gurukul, the guru would impart
educa tion for the all -round development of children and graduate them
only after ensuring that the learners have mastered the skills that were
expected of them.
The essence of human resource development is education, which
plays a significant and remedial rol e in balancing the social economic
framework of the country. Education is the stepping stone for high flying
career. Education system in India is managed and controlled well by the
government by providing education to all without any discrimination.
Right to education is the fundamental right of the citizen where education
is mandatory for the children of age group 6 -14 years. Indian constitution
has committed to provide free and compulsory education to the children
up to the age of fourteen. Education is d esigned by the state where
government is responsible for providing quality education. Past several
years India is producing many best talented professionals and working
hard for the nations growth and they are in great demand.munotes.in
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55Q-Write short note on educat ion in India.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________ ___________________________
3.8 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Education is the basis of human life. Man’s development and
progress depends on education. It also constructs personality and
beautifies it. Education motivates, encourages and guides man from
falsehood to truth, from dark to illumination, from ignorance to knowledge
and from mortality to immortality. Man has reached this height of
civilization with the help of education.
The word ‘education’ has been derived from the Latin term
‘Educatum’ which means the act of teaching or training. A group of
educationists say that it has come from another Latin word “educare’
which means ‘to bring up’ or ‘to raise’. According to a few other, the
words ‘educ ation’ has originated from other Latin term ‘Educate’ which
means ‘to lead forth’ or ‘to come out’. All the above meanings indicate
that education seeks to nourish the good qualities in man and draw out the
best in every individual. The word ‘Education’ is derived from two words
‘e’ and ‘duco’, ‘e’ means from inside and ‘duco’ means to develop. The
two words combined together give the meaning to make something grow
or develop from within.
The concept of education can be considered from the narrow and
broader point of view. In the narrow sense, education is equated with
schooling. In this sense, education is said to begin when the child enters to
school and ends when the child leaves the educational institutions which
he/she joined for the purpose of receiv ing education. Education in the
narrow sense, gives priority to classroom teaching and book learning. In
the broader sense, education is synonymous with growth and development
and the span of education is as wide as that of life. It means every
experiences in the life, every activity from the cradle to the grave is
educative.
According to John Storrs Mill, education in the narrow sense is
“The culture which generation purposely gives to its successors in order to
quality, to keep up and improve the level attained.” In his words,
education, in border sense “every environment, every surrounding, every
activity helps to shape the human being.”
The word ‘education’ is defined in many different ways. The
concept of education as a whole cannot be given by any o ne particular
definition.
The Concepts of Education as given by Prominent Indian
Educationist are as follows :munotes.in
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56Rig-Veda : ‘Education is something which makes man self -reliant and
selfless.
Upanishad : ‘Education is that whose end product is salvation.’
Bhagavad -Gita : ‘Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom.’
Shankaracharya : ‘Education is the realization of self.’
Kautilya : ‘Education means training of the country and love of the
nations.’
Panini : ‘Human education means the training which one gets from
nature.’
Gandhiji : ‘By education, I mean all round drawing out the best in a child
and man by body, mind and spirit.’
Swami Vivekananda : ‘Education is the manifestation of the device
perfection, already existing in man.
Rabindranath Tago re : ‘Education is that which makes one’s life in
harmony with all existences.’
Sri Aurobindo : ‘Education which will offer the tools whereby one can
live for the device, for the country, for oneself and for others and this must
be the ideal of every scho ol which calls itself national.’
Concepts of ‘Education’ as defined by Western Philosophers :
Socrates : ‘Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal
validity which are latent in the mind of every man.’
Plato : ‘Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right
moment. In develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty
and all the perfection which he is capable of.
Aristotle : ‘Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound b ody.’
Rousseau : ‘Education of man comments at his birth; before he can speak,
before he can understand he in already instructed.’
Herbert Spencer : ‘Education is complete living.’
Pestalozzi : ‘Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive
devel opment of man’s innate powers.’
Froebel : ‘Education is leading out of hidden power of man.’
UNESCO -‘Education includes all the process that develops human
ability and behaviour,’ The lexicographical definition of ‘education is the
act or process of im porting or acquiring general knowledge, developing
the powers of reasoning and judgement and generally of preparing oneself
or other intellectually for nature life.’
The remarks of different thinkers and educators highlights the
following features of edu cation: Its unilateral as well as bi -polar nature,
drawing out or bringing up process, knowledge or experience, being
conducive for the good of the individual or the welfare of the society and
being a liberal discipline or a vocational course.munotes.in
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57Q-Give the concept of education.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________ ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________ ______________ _______
3.8 OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION:
a)As per the National Policy on Education (1968), the aim of education is
“to promote national progress, a sense of common citizenship and
culture and to strengthen national integration.” It leads stress on “the
need for a radical reconstruction of the educational system to improve
its quality at all stages and give much greater attention to science and
technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relationship
between education and the life of the people.”
India's ne w National Education Policy ...en.gaonconnection.com
b)The national policy on education (1986) reinforced these aims to state
that education should full -fill the goals of socialism, secularism and
democracy enshrined in the constitution of India.
c)Education should strive to promote values likeIndia’s common cultural
heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of the
sexes protection of the environment, removal of social barriers,
observance of small family norms and inculcation of s cientific temper.
d)Education should foster an understanding of the diverse cultural and
social characteristics of the people living in different parts of the
country amongst students.
e)Minimum levels of learning for each stage of education should be
provided to ensure the quality of education.
f)Educational opportunity should be provided in terms of access to
education as well as the conditions necessary for success to promote
equity.munotes.in
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58g)Other aims of education are universalization of primary e ducation, total
literacy, adult education and provision of wider opportunities for
continuing education.
h)To provide opportunities to those sections of the society which cannot
avail formal education, and access to education through open and
distance le arning.
i)To establish network between different institutions in the countryto
facilitate research and development, education in science and
technology and participation in all the activities of national importance.
Q-What are the objectives of ed ucation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
3.9 F UNCTIONS OF EDUCATION:
Education is an indispensable act to an individual and the society.
Without education there would be loss of all the accumulated knowledge
of the ages and all the standard of conduct. An individual must learn the
culture of the society or the accepted ways of doing them. He must be
socialised in the prevailing culture and also should learn the rules of
conduct and expectations about future behaviour. Education provides a
conscious teaching program to inculcate values, norms and social skills to
enable the i ndividual to develop his personality and sustain the social
system.
Meaning of education:
The term education has different meanings as each person
interprets the word in terms of its past experience, needs and purposes.
The parents, the teachers, religi ous leaders, politicians, administrator's an
artist’s interpret the term education in their own ways. The meaning of
education differs from place to place and time to time. It has passed
through many ages and stages of evolution And at every stage it had a
different meaning as per the existing social conditions.
Education is life itself and is essential for every society and
individual but it is not a preparation for life. The various qualities of an
individual should be developed for the improvement of t he country.
Education play a complementary role four overall individual, social and
national development and enables an individual to realise his highest self
and goal. Education is much more than schooling. The child goes on
reconstructing his experiences throughout the whole life. Instruction ends
in the classroom, but education ends only with life.munotes.in
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59
Preparing Today's Youth for Tomorrow's Worldssir.org
The key functions and roles of education towards individual,
society and country are as follows:
Functions of education towards individual:
1)Development of inborn potentialities -Educat ion helps an individual
to develop the inborn potentialities of self by providing scope to
develop.
2)Modifying Behaviour -Past behaviour of an individual can be modified
with the help of education through learning and through different
agencies of education.
3)All round development -The aim of education is the all -round
development of an individual -physical, mental, soci al, emotional and
spiritual.
4)Preparing for the future -An individual can earn his livelihood after
getting proper and complete education that has productivity. The
education imparted should be of interest of the child.
5)Developing personality -An ind ividual is recognized in the society
after the development of the whole personality i.e. physically,
intellectually, socially, morally, spiritually and aesthetically.
6)Helping for adjustability -Man differs from beast as he has reasoning
and thinking po wer and he drives his best to adjust with his own
environment to education.
Functions of education towards society:
1)Social Change and Control -The society is progressive and dynamic
and it never halts. It is the social environment where the personality of
the individual can be developed. The old traditions and customs that are
preserved are transmitted with the situations to the individual which are
ever changing. An individual should not think or believ e in the blind
beliefs that hinder our development. Education helps an individual to
go along with the development of science and technology.
2)Reconstruction of Experiences -Education is a lifelong process and
life is full of experiences. It is said tha t life is education and educationmunotes.in
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60is life. An individual cannot live with his past experiences which are
unable to be adjusted in the society. Education helps the individual to
reconstruct the experience and adjust with the environment.
3)Development of Social and Moral Value -Society is always in tension
with narrow mindedness and there is no social or moral value. Moral
education can change though animality in the individual. Education
teaches the moral and social values like love, affection, fellow fee lings,
respect towards elders, sympathy, cooperation, tolerance and helping
the poor and needy persons.
4)Providing Opportunity or Equality -Education teaches us to give
equal opportunities in all aspects of life irrespective of cast , creed,
colour, sex and religion. The right to equality (Articles 14 -18) is one of
the fundamental rights recognised by the Indian constitution.
Functions of Education Towards Nation:
1)Inculcation of Civic and Social Responsibility -It is through education
the rising gene ration understands its rights and duties as citizens of a
democratic country.
2)Training for Leadership -The leadership quality of an individual is
developed when he participates in all spears of life i.e. Social , political,
religious and educational ac tivities.
3)National Integration -India is a country having many diversitiesin
respect of colour, caste, language, diet , dress, habits and physical
environment. Education trains the people for unity and not for
heterogeneity, And also for democracy and not for dictatorship.
Education serves the most important end of educating an individual.
4)Total National Development -By developing all the aspects of an
individual i.e. social , economic, educational, cultural, moral, spiritual,
etc. by means of educ ation bring about total national development.
Therefore, education is an essential ingredient for all ages and
stages of the life of an individual, society as well as the nation. Education
can be a real panacea for all social evils.
Q-Answer in brief t he functions of education.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________ _________________________________________________
_________________________________________ ________ ___________
3.10SUMMARY:
Religion is one of the earliest institution of human society and an
important social institution. Religion has been influencing human life and
human society both primitiv e and modern since ancient days. Each and
every aspect of human life and human society is influenced by religion.
Religion is a complex phenomenon which includes a complex ofmunotes.in
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61emotional feelings and attitudes towards mysteries and perplexities of
life.Relig ion and its associated aspects such as ritual and magic influence
rural India in many ways. Rural community is essentially caste -ridden. In
reality in rural areas caste and religion are inseparable. The origin of the
caste system emerges from religion. The re is a close association between
the rural society and religion. Religion is the basic requirement of group
and is a cultural universal as it fulfils many basic functions within human
societies. Religion has been an important part of the countries culture
throughout the Indian history. Religious diversity and religious tolerance
are both established in the country by the law and custom. The
constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a
fundamental right. Religion is one of the fundamental organisations of any
general public. It can be characterised as, “a social framework in which
there is regular confidence, revere, ceremonies, traditions and customs.”
Education is a lifelong process by which we learn new ways of
actions and thoughts. It encourages changes in behaviour which aims at
improving the human conditions. Education plays a vital role in
introducing the culture of the society among the students. As stated by Dr.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan “The end product of education s hould be a free
creative man who can battle against historical circumstances and
adversities of nature.” Education is a process by which the society through
schools, colleges, universities and other institutions deliberately transmits
its cultural heritage .Fundamentally strong higher education relates to the
prosperity of the nation. Many world leaders have pointed out that Indian
students are good in maths and science. Character building and strong
grounding in India's culture, history, traditions and cus toms have to be
essential components of the education system. The importance of
education is not only in knowledge and skill, but it is to help us to live
with others. We need to accept all that is good from different quarters, but
remain rooted to our pa st. We should introspect, rejuvenate and move
ahead by introducing changes in accordance with the changing time.
Education play a complementary role four overall individual, social and
national development and enables an individual to realise his highest s elf
and goal.
3.11 SELF STUDY:
Q-1 What is the concept of religion?
Q-2 Give the features of religion
Q-3 What are the main factors of religion?
Q-4 Answer in brief the -Functions of religion
Q-5 Give the importance of religion
Q-6 What is the concept of education
Q-7 Give the objectives of education
Q-8 Answer in brief the -Functions of educationmunotes.in
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62References:
https://www.preservearticles.com/education/what -are-the-
functions -of-education -towards -individual -society -and-
country/2621
http://www.studyguideindia.com/Education -india/
https://www.shareyouressays.com/essays/essay -on-important -
functions -of-religion/85923
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/religion/rural -religion -its-
characteristics -significance -functions -and-dysfunctions/4855
https://youthforum.co/role -of-religion -in-indian -society/
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what -is-the-importance -of-
religion -in-our-lives
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/religious -
institutions/religion -3-most -important -functions -of-religion/31380
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/religion/religion -meaning -
definitions -and-components -of-religion/6151
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/International
_Sociology/Book%3A_International_Relations_(M cGlinchey)/09
%3A_Religion_and_Culture/9.01%3A_Elements_of_Religion
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/religion -the-meaning -
and-functions -of-religion/34952
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/religious -
institutions/religion
https://old.mu.ac.in/wp -content/uploads/2020/01/Paper -4-TY-Edu-
Indian -Education -System -E-Rev.pdf
https://www.socio logylearners.com/functions -of-education/
https://www.slideshare.net/maheswarijaikumar/functions -of-
education -177832869
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/educational -system -
the-meaning -aspects -and-social -functions -of-education/8582
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/management/role -of-education -
in-rural-development.php
munotes.in
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634
RURAL INSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM II
Unit Structure
4.0 Scope and Importance of Education i n Rural Development
4.1 Objectives of Co -operation
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Concept of Co -operation
4.4 Features of Co -operation
4.5 Merits and Demerits of Co -operation
4.6 Importance of Co -operation in Rural Development
4.7 Summary
4.8 Self Study
4.0 SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN
RURAL DEVELOPMENT SCOPE:
The scope of education helps people to deal with various challenges
that come across in their life. It can be explained by its various processes.
Education by Accretion or Storage: Education is the process of
gradually filling up the empty mind of the child with grains of
knowledge. The teacher’s mind and the books are the store houses of
mental granary of the child which is called the grow -sack the ory. This
theory is narrow and unsound. It regards knowledge as information of
facts and statements to be condensed into compact and logical forms and
memorized by the students.
Education as Formation of Mind: Education tri es to form the mind by
a proper presentation of materials. It is formation of mind by setting up
certain association of content by means of a subject -matter.
Education as Preparation: Education as preparation is a process of
getting ready for the Responsibilities and privileges of adult life.
Preparation for complete living and this theory is the outcome of
modern scientific tendency in education.
Education as Mental Discipline: The theory of education as mental
discipline is a traditional concept of education. This theory is based on
the traditional ‘Faculty Theory’ of psychology according to which the
mind is divided into a number of separate faculties such as memory,munotes.in
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64attention, reasoning, imagination, perception, thinking etc. The process
of learning is more important than the thing learned as per this theory.
Literacy in rural India slideshare.net
Education as Growth and Development: It is a modern concept of
education as we know change is the law of nature. A individual
undergoes changes and trans formations from cradle to grave. These
changes may be of different types like physical, mental, moral and
emotional. Whenever there is change there is growth. A living organism
can take entirely a new shape and this again gives him/her power to grow
throug h change. Thus, we can say growing is education and getting
education is growing.
Education as Direction: Educating a child means directing the child in
the proper direction. The young learners have innate powers, attitudes,
interests and instincts. It is the essential through the function of
education to direct those inborn instincts and power properly in so cially
acceptable and desirable channels.
Education as Adjustment and Self -Activity: For self -development
adjustment is essential to an individual. Education gives an individual
the power of adjustment in an efficient mann er. It is through education,
the child learns to adjust with the environment. Adjustment requires self -
activity there fore education is nothing but adjustment through self -
activity.
Education as Social Change and Progress: A society is composed of
individuals and is bound to change when the ideas of individuals change.
Change is the law of human life and society. The function of education is
to maintain this progressive trend.
Education as a Process of Socialization: The child becomes a member
of the society after His birth and the process of socialization then begins.
Then the formal education of the child begins. Besides formal education
the child continues to learn and gather experiences in informal or
incidental way. The process of socialization starts in the family
environment and then the educational institutions take the responsibility
of such process.munotes.in
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65Q-Give the scope of education.
____________________________________________________ ________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The importance of Education in Rural Development:
The system of e ducation in rural areas has been undergoing many changes
and transformations. In the present existence, there have been
developments and progressions taking place in the system of education in
rural areas. But still much improvements need to be made and it is not at
par with the urban system of education. With developments taking place in
the system of education in rural areas, the rural communities are able to
recognize the significance of education and sustain their livelihoods better.
There have been dev elop of opportunities for adults as well to enhance
their educational skills and abilities. The main areas that have been taken
into account in this research paper are, objectives of rural education,
scenario of rural India’s education sector, differentia tion between urban
and the rural system of education, measures to make improvements in
rural education, fundamental principles of the high quality rural education
program, and measures formulated by the government.
Keywords: Education, Fundamentals, Imp rovements, Rural Areas,
Teaching -learning Processes The role of education in assisting social and
economic progress is well accepted. Access to education is critical to
access emerging opportunities that supplement economic growth. Taking
into consideratio n this accepted fact, there has been the main thrust on
education, since the country achieved its independence. But as far as
guaranteeing quality education in rural India is concerned, it has been one
of the major challenges for the government. India view ed education as the
best way of promoting social change. Soon after gaining independence in
1947, making education available to all has become a priority for the
government. The education sector has received considerable attention in
the budget for 2011 -2012, which has broadcasted a significant increase of
24 percent in the total allocation for the education sector. The operational
reforms have been reviewed to implement the right of children to free and
compulsory education, which has come into effect from 1 April 2010
(Rural Education, 2011).
There are few factors that are influencing the progress of the educational
system in rural areas. These are, increase in the demand for the first rate
pre-primary education for the children and families in rural area s. They are
aware of the situation in the developing part of the country and this is the
main reason that they have recognized the significance of education and
express willingness in educating their children. There is a need for the
system of education in rural areas to match with the system of education in
urban areas. There have been establishment of schools and training centres
in rural areas, which have led to improvements in the living standards of
the individuals. These standards have enabled the rur al communities to bemunotes.in
Page 66
66at par with the urban communities. Allocations to achieve the objectives of
the Right to Education, which has been aligned with the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan, increased from Rs 15,000 crore to Rs 21,000 crore. It targeted at
strengthening elementary education. The centre is now focusing on
vocationalisation of secondary education, which will enable students to
pursue job -oriented courses at the plus two level (R ural Education, 2011).
Objectives of Rural Education The objectives of rural education have been
stated as follows: (Sreekanthachari, &Nagaraja, 2013).
1. To Provide Free Standard Education to the Children belong to rural
communities.
2. The children shou ld be supported for higher education.
3. Guiding and supporting research scholars in educational development.
4. Implementation of new teaching methodologies and the system of
assessment.
5. Promoting a stress free and an amiable atmosphere in all schools.
Scenario of Rural India’s Education Sector
In the present existence, the main aspects that highlight the
scenario of India’s education sector have been specified in the following
point s:96.5% of children within the age group of six to 14 age group in
rural India are enrolled in schools; 71.1% of these children are enrolled in
government schools, 24.3% are enrolled in private schools; girls within the
age group of 11 to 14, who are still out of school have dropped from 6.8%
in 2009 to 5.9% in2010; in the states of Rajasthan, it is 12.1% and Uttar
Pradesh, it is 9.7%. The enrolment in private schools in rural India
increased from 21.8% in 2009 to 24.3% in 2010.
There was an increase in t he percentage of five year olds enrolled
in schools from 54.6% in 2009 to 62.8% in 2010. The largest increase was
visible in Karnataka, where the proportion of five year olds enrolled in
school increased from 17.1% in 2009 to 67.6% in 2010 (Rural Education ,
2011).
The changes in the reading levels of students were not much
recognized. Only 53.4% children in class V can read a class II level text.
This suggests that even after five years in school, close to half of the
students are not even at the level, e xpected of them after two years in
school. On average, there has been a decrease in their numerical abilities.
The proportion of class I students, who could recognize numbers from one
to nine, decreased from 69.3% in 2009 to 65.8% in 2010. Similarly, the
proportion of students in class III, who could solve two digit subtraction
problems decreased from 39% to 36.5% in the same period. Students in
class V, who could perform simple division problems also dropped from
38% in 2009 to 35.9% in 2010. Improvements are required to be made in
infrastructure and also there is a need to establish more classrooms (Rural
Education, 2011).munotes.in
Page 67
67The system of education in rural areas has been undergoing many
changes and transformations. In the present existence, there have been
developments and progressions taking place in the system of education in
rural areas. But still much improvements need to be made and it is not at
par with the urban system of education. With developments taking place in
the system of education in rural ar eas, the rural communities are able to
recognize the significance of education and sustain their livelihoods better.
There have been develop of opportunities for adults as well to enhance
their educational skills and abilities. The main areas that have bee n taken
into account in this research paper are, objectives of rural education,
scenario of rural India’s education sector, differentiation between urban
and the rural system of education, measures to make improvements in
rural education, fundamental princ iples of the high quality rural education
program, and measures formulated by the government.
Keywords: Education, Fundamentals, Improvements, Rural Areas,
Teaching -learning Processes The role of education in assisting social and
economic progress is we ll accepted.
Access to education is critical to access emerging opportunities
that supplement economic growth. Taking into consideration this accepted
fact, there has been the main thrust on education, since the country
achieved its independence. But as far as guaranteeing quality education in
rural India is concerned, it has been one of the major challenges for the
government. India viewed education as the best way of promoting social
change. Soon after gaining independence in 1947, making education
available to all has become a priority for the government. The education
sector has received considerable attention in the budget for 2011 -2012,
which has broadcasted a significant increase of 24 percent in the total
allocation for the education sector. The op erational reforms have been
reviewed to implement the right of children to free and compulsory
education, which has come into effect from 1 April 2010 (Rural
Education, 2011).
There are few factors that are influencing the progress of the
educational syst em in rural areas. These are, increase in the demand for
the first rate pre -primary education for the children and families in rural
areas. They are aware of the situation in the developing part of the country
and this is the main reason that they have rec ognized the significance of
education and express willingness in educating their children. There is a
need for the system of education in rural areas to match with the system of
education in urban areas. There have been establishment of schools and
trainin g centres in rural areas, which have led to improvements in the
living standards of the individuals. These standards have enabled the rural
communities to be at par with the urban communities. Allocations to
achieve the objectives of the Right to Education , which has been aligned
with the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, increased from Rs 15,000 crore to Rs
21,000 crore. It targeted at strengthening elementary education. The centre
is now focusing on vocationalisation of secondary education, which will
enable student s to pursue job -oriented courses at the plus two level (Rural
Education, 2011).munotes.in
Page 68
68Objectives of Rural Education
The objectives of rural education have been stated as follows:
(Sreekanthachari, & Nagaraja, 2013).
1. To Provide Free Standard Education to the Children belong to rural
communities.
2. The children should be supported for higher education.
3. Guiding and supporting research scholars in educational development.
4. Implementation of new teaching methodolo gies and the system of
assessment.
5. Promoting a stress free and an amiable atmosphere in all schools.
Scenario of Rural India’s Education Sector
In the present existence, the main aspects that highlight the
scenario of India’s education sector have be en specified in the following
points:96.5% of children within the age group of six to 14 age group in
rural India are enrolled in schools; 71.1% of these children are enrolled in
government schools, 24.3% are enrolled in private schools; girls within the
age group of 11 to 14, who are still out of school have dropped from 6.8%
in 2009 to 5.9% in2010; in the states of Rajasthan, it is 12.1% and Uttar
Pradesh, it is 9.7%. The enrolment in private schools in rural India
increased from 21.8% in 2009 to 24.3% in 2010.
There was an increase in the percentage of five year olds enrolled
in schools from 54.6% in 2009 to 62.8% in 2010. The largest increase was
visible in Karnataka, where the proportion of five year olds enrolled in
school increased from 17.1% in 200 9 to 67.6% in 2010 (Rural Education,
2011).
The changes in the reading levels of students were not much
recognized. Only 53.4% children in class V can read a class II level text.
This suggests that even after five years in school, close to half of the
students are not even at the level, expected of them after two years in
school. On average, there has been a decrease in their numerical abilities.
The proportion of class I students, who could recognize numbers from one
to nine, decreased from 69.3% in 2009 to 65.8% in 2010. Similarly, the
proportion of students in class III, who could solve two digit subtraction
problems decreased from 39% to 36.5% in the same period. Students in
class V, who could perform simple division problems also dropped from
38% in 20 09 to 35.9% in 2010. Improvements are required to be made in
infrastructure and also there is a need to establish more classrooms (Rural
Education, 2011).
In rural development, education, economic development, physical
and social infrastructure play a maj or role. Rural development is
characterized by its focus on locally produced economic development
strategies. Rural areas are highly distinctive from each other as opposed to
urban regions, which have many similarities. This is why a wide variety ofmunotes.in
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69approa ches to rural development are being used globally. Education is the
mirror of society and the seed of socio -economic development. It is
through education transformation of people from ignorance to
enlightenment, from shades of social backwardness to social improvement
light, and a nation from underdevelopment to faster social and economic
development is achieved.
slideshare.net
Rural development actions are primarily aimed at social and
economic development in rural areas. The term rural development is not
limited to developing countries because many developed countries have
very active programs for rural development. Rural gover nment policy’s
main objective is to develop undeveloped villages and locally controlled,
practical, applied, problem -solving and it focuses on functional
specialization in education that contributes to rural development.
Education is essential for growth a nd development and serves as a critical
index for measuring development agenda’s progress.
Therefore it is necessary to make deliberate efforts to develop the
educational sector, especially in rural areas, by providing infrastructure
and facilities for edu cation, sustainable curriculum and policies, hiring
more efficient and well qualified teaching staff, and strengthening
supervisory functions on educational facilities and student scholarships.
Education is the most powerful tool for poverty reduction, ens uring peace
and stability, and development of the people. Education has a desirable
control over rural individual, family, community, and society
development, poverty reduction, income equity, and controlled
unemployment.
Education plays an important role in supply, production,
marketing, staff maintenance, health care, and governance systems in rural
areas. Education functions bring about social change, improve individuals
social status and living standards, activate participation in rural and
cultural de velopment, increase rural people’s critical ability to diagnose
their needs, assert their rights and take greater control of decisions thatmunotes.in
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70affect their lives, provide skilled labour in rural areas, link rural and urban
areas.
digital literacy can transform lives
...bloncampus.thehindubus inessline.com
The role of education in assisting social and economic progress is
well accepted. Access to education is critical to access emerging
opportunities that supplement economic growth. Taking into consideration
this accepted fact, there has be en the main thrust on education, since India
became independent. But as far as guaranteeing quality education in rural
India is concerned, it has been one of the major challenges for the
government. India viewed education as the best way of promoting socia l
change. The system of education in rural areas has been undergoing many
changes and transformations. In the present situation, there have been
developments and progressions taking place in the system of education in
rural areas. But still much improvemen ts are to be made and it is not at par
with the urban system of education. With developments taking place in the
system of education in rural areas, the rural communities are able to
recognize the significance of education and sustain their livelihoods bet ter.
There have been developments of opportunities for adults as well to
enhance their educational skills and abilities.
After gaining independence in 1947, making education available to
all has become a priority for the government. The education sector
received considerable attention in the budget for 2011 -2012, which
broadcasted a significant increase of 24 percent in the total allocation for
the education sector. The operational reforms were reviewed to implement
the right of children to free and compu lsory education, which came into
effect from 1 April 2010 (Rural Education, 2011) .
The few factors that are influencing the progress of the educational
system in rural areas are, increase in the demand for the first rate pre -
primary education for the chil dren and families in rural areas. They have
become aware of the situation in the developing part of the country and
have recognized the significance of education and have expressed
willingness in educating their children. There have been establishment of
schools and training centres in rural areas, which have led to
improvements in the living standards of the individuals. These standards
have enabled therural communities to be at par with the urbanmunotes.in
Page 71
71communities. Allocations to achieve the objectives of the R ight to
Education, which has been aligned with the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan ,
increased from Rs 15,000 crore to Rs 21,000 crore. It targeted at
strengthening elementary education. The centre is now focusing on
vocational education at secondary educational level, to enable students to
pursue job -oriented courses at the plus two lev el (Rural Education, 2011).
Q-Give the importance of education in rural development.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______________ _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
4.1 OBJECTIVES:
1) To study the scope and importance of education in rural development.
2) To study the types and concepts of co -operation.
3) To st udy the characteristics and features of co -operation.
4) To know the merits & demerits and importance of co -operation.
4.2 INTRODUCTION:
Co-operation is the most pervasive and continuous process of the
social processes, an integrating activity and is bel ieved to be the opposite
of competition. Co -operation generally means working together in the
pursuit of common interest. The word ‘Co -operation’ is derived from two
Latin words, ‘Co’ meaning together and ‘operari’ meaning to work. It is
thus joint activit y in pursuit of common goals or shared rewards. It is goal
oriented and conscious form of social interaction. It involves two elements
(i)common end, and (ii)organised effort.
Green defines cooperation as “The continuous and common
Endeavour of two or m ore persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that
is commonly cherished.”
In the words of Merrill and Eldredge, “Cooperation is a form of
social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a
common end.”
Fairchild writes, “Cooperat ion is the process by which individuals
or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organised way for the
attainment of common objective.”
Cooley says, “Co -operation arises when men see that they have a
common interest and have, at the same time, s ufficient intelligence and
self-control to seek this interest through united action: perceived unity of
interest and faculty of organization are the essential facts in intelligent
combination.”munotes.in
Page 72
72Co-operation, imposes restraints on the participant. The self cannot
work in its way entirely if it is working co -operatively with another self.
Co-operation many a times implies inhibition of certain ego -centred
drives. There is the rise of moral control that lacks in uninhibited conflict
from the restraint that is imposed.
Co-operation is brought about by several circumstances which are
(i)desire for individual benefits, (ii)desire to give, (iii) devotion to
common purposes, (iv)situational necessity ,a n d (v)desire to achieve
larger goals.
Types ofCo-operation:
Theprincipal types ofco-operation areasfollows:
(i)Direct Co-operation: Those activities in which co -operating
individuals perform identical functions like moving a pile of stones or
pushing a motor car out of the mud are included in direct co -operation.
Playing together, worshipping together, tilling the fields together are
other examples of direct co -operation. They do the functions together
either because the face to face situation is itself a stimulus to the
performance of the task or because it brings them social satisfaction.
(ii)Indirect Co-operation: Those activities in which people do unlike
tasks toward a similar end are included in Indirect co -operation. In
other words, in this type of co -operation individual’s work towards a
common end but each has his own specialised functions too as the case
may be. For example, when carpenters, plumbers and masons co -
operate to build a house. This co -operation is based on the famous
principle of the division of labour. In the modern society it is the
indirect co -operation that is used more than the direct co -operation
because the present technological age requires specialisation of skills
and functions.
(iii)Primary Co-operation: It is the co -operation which is found in
primary groups such as the family. In this form of co -operation, there
is an identity of interests between the individual and the group. The
achievement of the interest of the group includes the realisation of the
individ ual’s interests.
(iv)Secondary Co-operation: This type of cooperation is found in the
secondary groups such as government, industry, church and trade
union etc.
(v)Tertiary Co-operation: This co -operation is found in the interaction
between the various big and small groups to meet a particular
situation.munotes.in
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73Q-What is co -operation and give its types?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
4.3 CONCEPT OF CO -OPERATION
Cooperative movement explain as a “Voluntary movement of
the people, carried out democratically by pooling tog ether their
resources or carrying on the given activity, with the purpose of
achieving or securing certain benefits or advantage which given to
people cannot get individually and with the purpose of promoting certain
virtue and values such as self help, mutual help and general goods of all.”
Cooperation involves individuals or groups working together for
the achievement of their individual or collective goals. In its simplest
form, Cooperation may involve only two people who work together
towards a common goal.
Cooperation is an act or instance of working or acting together for
a common purpose or benefit, joint action, more or less active assistance
from a person, organization, etc.
https://steemit.com/life/@alkhairate/what -is-the-importance -of-
cooperation
Co-operation is a universal phenomenon. It is very much important
in the life of an individual that according to Kropotkin, it is difficult to
survive without it. Mutual aid starts with co -operation in rearing of
progeny and in the provision of protection and of food. Co -operation is
evident for survival among the lowest animals such as the ants and
termites and also among higher animals also co -operation is apparent.
Co-operation is both a psychological and social necessity for
human beings. An individual learnshis first lesson in co -operation in the
family. Without co -operation the individual and collective goals cannot be
achieved.munotes.in
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74Co-operation is needed at every step in our life. If one does not co -
operate with others, he is left to lead a solitary lif e, tired of which he is
obliged to learn to co -operate with others. The physical, mental and
spiritual needs of the individual remain unsatisfied if he does not agree to
co-operate with his fellow -members.
All the progress that mankind has made in the var ious fields is to
be attributed to the co -operating spirit of the people. The astounding
achievements of science and technology, initial success of man in his
flight to the Moon, attempt to bridge the gulf between the standards of
living of the highly deve loped and the most undeveloped countriesare the
results of human cooperation.
Q-Write short note on the concept of co -operation.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____ _______________________________________________________
____________________________________ ________________________
4.4 CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES OF CO -
OPERATION
4.4.1 Following are the important characteristics of cooperation:
(i)Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction which takes
place between two or more individuals or groups.
https://steemit.com/life/@alkhairate/what -is-the-importance -of-
cooperation
(ii)Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups
have to work consciously.
(iii)Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups
personally meet and work together for a common objective.
(iv)Cooperation is a continu ous process. There is continuity in the
collective efforts in cooperation.
(v)Cooperation is a universal process which is found in all groups,munotes.in
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75societies and nations.
(vi)Cooperation is based upon two elements such as common end and
organised effort.
(vii) Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is
necessary for the progress of individual as well as society.
Q-What are the characteristics of co -operation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________ ________________________________________________
_________________________________ _________ __________________
4.4.2 Features of Cooperation:
In the broader sense the core values and essential characteristics of
cooperation constitutes the salient features of cooperation. These special
features of cooperation distinguish it from other forms of organisation.
They are as follows:
1. Consciousness: Cooperation is a conscious process in which
individuals or groups have to work consciously.
2. Voluntarism : The spirit of cooperation lies on the voluntarism.
Voluntarism means an individual is entitled to join or leave an
organisation without any compulsion. The decision to join or leave an
organisation is purely vested with the individual’s decision and with out
the compulsion / coercion from external forces.
3.Commonality : The existence of commonality among its members is the
special feature of co -operation. The members joining the cooperation
have common character or objective viz common need to be fulfil led.
The main aim of the members to join in cooperation is primarily to
fulfil common economic need allied with social, health, emotional and
such other needs. The thriving force that enable them in utilising the
services of cooperation is the prevalence o f homogeneity of need
amongst members.munotes.in
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764.Universality : Cooperation is a general form of organisation and it is
applicable to any walks of life of human being. Cooperation can be
organised for production, processing, industrial, marketing, consumers,
service and other purposes.
5.Neutrality : Cooperation is always neutral to politics, religion, race,
nationality and such Other discriminations found among human
beings. There is no discrimination based on social, political,
economical, religion, gender and such others among its members in
cooperation.
6.Equality : Equality means treatment of each member of the cooperation
on par with other member. Nomember is treated superior (or) inferior
(higher or lower),they are given equal treatment. Each member is g iven
equal rights to participate in the management, decision making and
utilising the services. It completely rules out capital and others as the
sources of power.
Just Do It -Equilibrium Foundation equilibrium. foundation
7.Mutuality : In cooperatives, each one is joined to fulfil the common
need mutually. The essence of cooperation is “each shall work for all
and all shall work for each in attainment of the ir common need”. Each
for all and all for each.
8.Democracy: Cooperation seeks to realise democracy in managing the
affairs by its members. The democratic control by the members is
ensured by providing equal opportunity for everyone to participate in
the administration and by giving equal voting rights to all.
9.Autonomy : Autonomy means freedom to govern the cooperation itself
independently by its owners.
Q-What are the features of co -operation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
4.5 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CO -OPERATIONmunotes.in
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77Merits of Co -operation:
A study done in 2010 revealed that, in most occasions the
outcome on a given task can be improved when two people have helped
each other instead of working on their own. Be it in the workpla ce, doing
scientific research or working in events this concept holds true. By the
way of cooperation people can pool together their skills and creativity
towards a common name. They have a higher chance of being more
successful because of this.
The benef its out of teamwork and collaboration or co -operation can be:
1) Interdependence is healthier: Cooperation makes interdependence in
society healthier and allows the inclusion of everybody in the society.
2) Process of Inclusion: It is a process of inclus ion and of moving ahead,
taking along all the sections of the society.
3) It Fosters Peer Learning and Self -Improvement: When we work
within a team it helps us to create an environment that inspires
collective knowledge, resources and skills which allows us to pick
some ideas and to reflect on our ownway of thinking. Teamwork
encourages self -improvement and is a key skill to acquire regardless of
the nature of our role within an organisation because it helps us to
expand our horizons and make better use o f our own intrinsic
capabilities. Self -improvement not only helps us to seek better ways to
perform our role within a team, but also improves both the efficiency
andproductivity of the team as a whole.
4) Bonding, Support and Playfulness: In cooperative play, challenge,
discovery and succe ss are shared. Emphasis is on participation,
acceptance and joy. It is the relationship that counts. support,
playfulness and stronger bonding is created with everyone.
Vector illustration Stock Vector Image & Art –Alamyalamy.com
5) Teamwork Promotes Diversity: Teamwork requires a group of p eople
from different backgrounds to come together and share their
experiences. This kind of environment nurtures diverse opinions,
approaches and problem -solving techniques. This level of diversitymunotes.in
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78generates cultural understanding, increased communication through
collective knowledge of approaches and a larger resource of ideas.
6) Teamwork and Shared Decision Making: In cooperative settings
each and every persons role is given importance and valued.
Individuality is respected and concern for the needs of others is
fostered. As a result the challenge shifts from “striving to be number
one” to “working towards a mutual goal. The idea is a powerful tool
that we all share in decision -making.
7) Delegation of Tasks Becomes Easy: Being a team leader it is obv ious
to be in favour of teamwork and that it allows you to convene a team of
individuals who each have unique skills to help you with the project.
Teamwork allows you to get the most of each person’s characteristics.
A task can be assigned based on a perso n’s skills and expertise.
8) Teamwork Encourages Healthy Competition: When a group of goal -
oriented people is assembled, they see each other as a rival. A healthy
balance of friendly rivalry within the team won’t do much harm, it can
benefit not just the organisation itself, even the team members will be
benefited. According to the British economist Stephen Nickell, people
can learn powerful lessons in an environment that promotes
competition since this encourages engagement, mastery of a task and a
desire to achieve your best. He also says that competition is linked with
productivity.
9) Openness, Trust and Safety: People really want and need to feel safe,
be open and honest, and above all feel trusted in work or play.
Cooperation or cooperative situatio ns help to create that atmosphere, as
the participants encourage and support one another.
10) It Increases Creativity and Innovation: The seeds of creativity and
innovation come from the exchange of ideas from people of diff erent
backgrounds. For example researchers who come from different
disciplines can potentially lead to ground -breaking researches about
climate change.
11) Self -Worth and Personal Power: Cooperation is linked to greater
learning, emotional maturity and st rong personal identity. Individuals
or participants become more flexible in their thinking and show
willingness to invent on creative solutions which results in enjoyment,
personal confidence and a feeling of self -worth. “I can make a
difference” feeling i s acquired as the personal power grows.
12) Takeaway: The organization could gain benefits from teamwork but
may also come with potential problems. It should not be expected that
a multidisciplinary team to get straight away. It has to be considered
by the team leader whether to reward or punish individuals or the
entire group. But, the benefits of teamwork and collaboration can
easily outweigh those drawbacks. In considering the benefits, a goodmunotes.in
Page 79
79place to start is with the end in mind –how will the teamw ork help
the organisation position itself for growth.
13) Well -being: Cooperationor cooperative activities are non -threatening
and non -judgemental which creates an atmosphere to relax and well -
being foundation for more genuine healthy and playful fun.
Demerits:
When an organisation has a scarcity of teamwork or collaboration,
thinking may stagnate, jeopardising solutions and ideas. It is difficult to
maintain positive feelings f or someone who try to make you feel low. Hurt
feelings and arguments often result from competition. It becomes difficult
to share our skills, experiences and resources in a competition as each
person is separately involved in his or her exclusive goal. Stu dents and
employees in schools and work places are often taught to regard each
other as opponents, rivals and obstacles to their success and not as
potential collaborators.
Disadvantages of Co -operation … researchgate.net
Competition in workplace and play results in arguments, hurt
feelings and separation. Many projects and games based on secrecy and
intimidation result in feeling unsafe. Competitive situations are highly
stressful and the possibility of failure or rejectio n creates agitation if not
outright anxiety. The fear or anger generated by losing or being eliminated
often causes embarrassment, tension and hostility.
Q-What are the merits and demerits of co -operation?
________________________________________________ ____________
____________________________________________________________
________ ____________________________________________________
______________________________________ ______________________
4.6 IMPORTANCE OF CO -OPERATION IN RURALmunotes.in
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80DEVELOPMENT:
Cooperation is very important as it allows people and groups to
work together to achieve a common goal or derive mutual benefits. It
exists at many levels and takes place between individuals and
organizations and also between States and countries. Cooperation not only
allows participants to exchange valuable information but helps both sides
to improve their knowledge basis and work in a time and resource efficient
manner. Participants in a cooperative relationship often share vital
resources and knowledge as w ell as staff and personnel to accomplish a
specific task.
Don McCullough/CC -BY 2.0 https://steemit.com/life
It is through cooperation people can accomplish thin gs no one
person could manage alone. From the ancient period of human existence
individuals were taught to cooperate with one another to provide food and
shelter, while taking care of the new born and teaching them what they
must know. Cooperative activity helps the humans to learn from one
another, skills to be acquired, knowledge to be accumulated, to develop
techniques and tools and that everything has to be transferred to the next
generation.
The words of MacIver and Page (1962) “Society is co -operati on
crossed by conflict” clearly highlights the importance of co -operation in
society. The authors have equated society with co -operation but at the
same time have not ignored the incidence of conflict which takes place in
the society from time to time. All the progress of mankind is attributed to
the co -operative efforts in different fields but conflict also is necessary for
the upliftment of society or else people will become inert and life may
become inactive and eventless.
Co-operation is a universal ph enomenon and is found since birth to
death. Without the help and co -operation of mother and other members in
the family rearing, caring and protection of the child is not possible. Even
after death people are required to carry the dead body to the crematio n
ground. All social groups are based on the co -operation of their members
be it from the smaller family or groupto the large families or international
organizations. Co -operative relationships can result in a one -timemunotes.in
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81collaboration between parties to achi eve a goal or can involve recurring
meetings and events to allow the parties to continue working together.
A few examples of co -operation are given below:
Sharing -Company releases intellectual property like software or a patent
to the public domain. The company is benefitted in many ways by this.
For example it may encourage an industry to adopt standards that align to
the company’s products.
Collaboration -Collaboration is co -operative work. For example, two
students who work on a science fair project together as a team.
Mutualism -It is a term from biology denoting symbiotic relationship
between species whereby both species benefit. Small birds perching o n
large mammals and eat the ticks from their coat.
Strategy -Co-operation has strategic advantages for all contributors. A
wolf pack hunting large animal that an individual wolf can’t do.
Specialization -Humans co -operate in complex ways by assigning h ighly
specialized roles. For instance medical roles such as anesthesiologist or
neurosurgeon or orthopaedic surgeon.
Friendship –It involves co -operation wherein friends help each other and
are sympathetic to each other’s challenges.
https://steemit.com/life/@alkhairate/what -is-the-importance -of-
cooperation
Comradery –It is the sense of belonging and sharing experience that
emerges from struggling towards a common purpose as a group.
Reciprocity –Reciprocity is a social norm resembling co -operation where
people feel they should repay the kindness they have received.
Altruism –It is the act of doing something good which doesn’t directly
benefit someone. It is like volunteering in the kitchen for the needy ones.munotes.in
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82Groupthink –Groupthink is a process of co -operation to make sure that
nobody thinks or says anything tha t doesn’t confirm to an ideology.
Society –It is a complex co -operation between people living in a place. It
is the means for the humans to co -operate as extremely large groups of
individuals with highly specialized roles.
International Co -operation –Globalization is a process wherein modern
societies are highly interconnected and co -operative.
Culture –Culture is the meaning and expectations that emerge out with
the shared experience of groups often resembling co -operation.
Institutions –Institutions like families and governments are durable and
resilient groups that co -operate over extended periods of time to provide
society with stability and consistency.
Creative Tension –Co-operation involves argument and debate that
remains civil and can be de scribed as creative tension whereby people
working together towards a common purpose may still have lively
disagreements.
Machine Co -operation –Humans co -operate with machines and vice
versa. Machines too co -operate with each other and this large scale c o-
operation between machines is called cloud.
Q-Give the importance of co -operation with few examples.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
________________________________ ____________________________
4.7 SUMMARY:
In rural development, education, economic development, physical
and social infrastructure play a major role. Rural development is
characterized by its focus on locally produced economic development
strategies. Rural areas are highly distinctive from each o ther as opposed to
urban regions, which have many similarities. Rural government policy’s
main objective is to develop undeveloped villages and locally controlled,
practical, applied, problem -solving and it focuses on functional
specialization in education that contributes to rural development.
Co-operation is the most pervasive and continuous process of the
social processes, an integrating activity and is believed to be the opposite
of competition. Co -operation generally means working together in the
pursuit of common interest. Cooperation involves individuals or groups
working together for the achievement of their individual or collectivemunotes.in
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83goals. In its simplest form, Cooperation may involve only two people who
work together towards a common goal. Particip ants in a cooperative
relationship often share vital resources and knowledge as well as staff and
personnel to accomplish a specific task.
4.8 SELF STUDY:
Q-1Give the scope of education.
Q-2Give the importance of education in rural development.
Q-3W h at is co -operation and give its types?
Q-4Write short note on the concept of co -operation.
Q-5 What are the characteristics of co -operation?
Q-6 What are the features of co -operation?
Q-7 What are the merits and demerits of co -operation?
Q-8Give the impo rtance of co -operation with few examples.
Cooperative movement explain as a “Voluntary movement of
the people, carried out democratically by pooling together their
resources or carrying on the given activity, with the purpose of
achiev ing or securing certain benefits or advantage which given to
people cannot get individually and with the purpose of promoting certain
virtue and values such as self help, mutual help and general goods of all.”
References:
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https://www.sociologydiscussion.com/social -process/co -operation -in-
social -process -meaning -types -and-role/2210
https://lifelearners.ng/the -importance -of-education -in-rural-areas/
https://www.psychreg.org/benefits -cooperation/
https://www.forsmallhands.com/ideas -insights/the -benefits -of-
cooperation
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/social -interaction/co -
operation -in-social -life-elements -types -and-importance -of-co-
operation/31274
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.
https://www.preservearticles.com › sociology › what -is-...
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/essays/essay -on-
cooperation/1404
munotes.in
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845
SOCIAL CHANGE
Unit Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concept of social change
5.3 Nature of Social Change
5.4 Factors of Social Change
5.5 Reasons of Social Change
5.6 Change in Rural Social Life
5.7 Summary
5.8 Self-Study
5.0 OBJECTIVES
1)To understand the Concept of Social Change.
2)To study the Nature of social Change.
3)To study the Reasons of Social Change.
4)To study the change in rural social life.
5)To study the People’s Participation for Social Change.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Social Change refers to an alteration in the social order o fa
society. Social change may include change in nature, social institution,
social behaviours or social relations. Social change may refer to the notion
of social progress or socio cultural evolution, the philosophical idea that
society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer
to a paradigmatic change in the socio -economic structure, for instance a
shift away from feudalism towards capitalism. Accordingly it m ay also
refer to social revolution, such as the socialist revolution presented in
Marxism, or to other social movements, such as Women’s suffrage or the
civil rights movement.munotes.in
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85
dreamstime.com
Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic,
scientific or technological forces. The village social life has its own
peculiar characteristics. The village social life norms strengthen the
authoritaria n and hierarchical norms in administration. The village social
life, which is based on the hierarchical exchange relations greatly
influence the behaviour of civil servants in public organizations.
Sociologists think that to define Indian villages, its pop ulation, physical
structure and modes of production are definitely important. Usually, a
village has less than five thousand individuals. It is rightly said ‘ India is a
country of villages’. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Indians and
majority o f people in India live in the villages. Our villages help in
strengthening our social bonds and bringing stability to our society in
many ways. Our villages also help our society in another way namely that
of preserving our culture.
The Indian rural socie ty has undergone considerable change in the
recent past, particularly since the independence as result of series of the
land reform legislations that have accelerated the pace of this change.
India has a rich cultural heritage and is a land of diversities. The diversity
in social life is reflected in multi -social, multi -lingual, multi -religious and
multi -caste nature of the society. The important features of the Indian
social structure are predominant rural habitation in small villages, multi -
religious and multi -caste social identities and important role of family in
the social life. In recent years, the communal organizations have become
very active in social life resulting in communal clashes in different parts of
the country.
5.2 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CHANG E:
Broadly speaking, there are two types of processes the one which
sustains the social system and the other which brings about change in the
system and change of the system. The first processes may be termed as
conformity, status quo and continuity. The other may be called as
processes of cultural and structural change. Social change being universal
its pattern and factors may vary from time to time and place to place. This
change can be seen in terms of the elements of time and history in relation
to a given society or social phenomena.munotes.in
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86MacIver andPage in1967 have written inthisregard:
“Society exists only in time -sequence. It is a being not a process,
and changing equilib rium of present relationship.” Social change is
distinct from cultural or civilisational change. In social change the
emphasis is on social relationships.
A social structure is a network of relationships which is sustained
by those members who participate in social relationships. Social change is
the change in social structure. Change in social values, institutions,
economic pursuits, property relations, personal and role distribution are
indicated as examples of social change in modern society. Social cha nge is
always relative in terms of time, space and economy. One can compare
patterns of change on the basis of these three elements. Resistance to
social change also a common feature as change disturbs the ongoing social
order and relations. Resistance is registered by those who are negatively
affected by processes of social change.
Kingsley Davis in 1967 has listed several questions with regards to
the understanding of social change. What is the direction of social change?
What is the rate of socia l change? What is the source of social change?
What is the cause of social change? Is the cause of social change
overwhelmingly deterministic in nature? Can social change be regulated to
the desired direction?
Peter L. Burger and Brigitte Burger In 1976 have stated that “ the
experience of social change is at the very core of sociology as a discipline.
Sociology has been developed as an intellectual response to catalytic
social change”.
Prominent Theories of Social Change
Change comes from two sources. One source is random or unique
factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific groups of
people. Another source is systematic factors. For example, a successful
development has the same general requirements, such as a stable and
flexible gove rnment, enough free and available resources, and a diverse
social organization of society. So, on the whole, social change is usually a
combination of systematic factors along with some random or unique
factors. There are many theories of social change. Ge nerally, a theory of
change should include elements such as structural aspects of change (like
population shifts), process and mechanisms of social change, and
directions of change.
Hegelian: The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the
interaction of opposing forces. Starting from a point of momentary stasis,
Thesis countered by Antithesis first yields conflict and it subsequently
results in a new synthesis.
Marxist: Marxism presents a dialectical and materialistic concept of
history. Humankind’s history is a fundamental struggle between social
classes.munotes.in
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87Kuhnian: The Philosopher of Science Thomas Kuhn argues in ‘The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions’ with respect to the Copernican
Revolution that people are unlikely to jettison an unworkable paradigm,
despite many indications that the paradigm is not functioning properly,
until a better paradigm can be presented.
Heraclitan: The Greek Philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a
river to speak of change thus, “On those stepping into rivers staying the
same other and other waters flow”. What Heraclitus seems to be
suggesting here, later interpretations notwithstanding, is tha t, in order for
the river to remain the river, change must constantly be taking place. Thus
one may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel to that of a living
organism, which, in order to remain alive must constantly be changing. A
contemporary applicat ion of this approach is shown in the social change
theory Seed -Scale which builds off of the Complexity Theory Subfield of
Emergence.
Daoist: The Chinese philosophical work Dao De Jing uses the metaphor
of water as the ideal agent of change. Water, altho ugh soft and yielding,
will eventually wear away stone. Change in this model is to be natural,
harmonious and steady, albeit imperceptible.
Check your progress -
Q-Write short note on Prominent theories of social change
_______________________________ _____________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________ ____________________________________________
__________________________________________________ __________
5.3 NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society.
social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social
behaviour, or social relations. Social change may refer to the notion of
social progress or socio cultural evolution, the phi losophical idea that
society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer
to a paradigmatic change in the socio -economic structure, for instance a
shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism. Accordingly it may
also refer to social revolution, such as the socialist revolution presented in
Marxism, or to other social movements, such as women’s suffrage or the
civil rights movement.
Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic,
scientific or technological forces. Soc ial change refers to an alteration in
the social order of a society. Social change may include change in nature,
social institutions, social behaviour, or social relations. All these changes
are interdependent. Change in any of the either there would be a change in
the other.munotes.in
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885.4 FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
1) Physical Environment: Major changes in the physical environment are
very compelling when they happen. The desert wastes of North Africa
were once green and well populated. Climates change, soil erodes and
lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is greatl y
affected by such changes although sometimes they come about so
slowly that they are largely unnoticed. Human misuse can bring very
rapid changes in physical environment which in turn change the social
and cultural life of a people. Deforestation brings l and erosion and
reduces rainfall. Much of the wasteland and desert land of the world is
a testament to human ignorance and misuse. Environmental destruction
has been at least a contributing factor in the fall of most great
civilization. Many human groups t hroughout history have changed their
physical environment through migration. In the primitive societies
whose members are very directly dependent upon their physical
environment migration to a different environment brings major changes
in the culture. Civi lization makes it easy to transport a culture and
practice it in a new and different environment.
2) Population Changes: A population change in itself is a social change
and also becomes casual factor further in social and cultural changes.
When a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the hospitality pattern
fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structures
grow more elaborate and many other changes follow. A stable
population may be able to resist change but a rapidly growin g
population must migrate, improve its productivity or starve. Great
historic migrations and conquests of the Huns, Vikings and many
others have arisen from the pressure of a growing population upon
limited resources. Migration encourages further change fo r it brings a
group into a new environment subjects it to new social contacts and
confronts it with new problems. No major population change leaves the
culture unchanged.
3) Social Structure: The structure of a society affects its rate of change in
subtl e and not immediately apparent ways. A highly centralized
bureaucracy is very favourable to the promotion and diffusion of
change although bureaucracy has sometimes been used in an attempt to
suppress change usually with no more than temporary success. Whe na
culture is very highly integrated so that each element is rightly
interwoven with all the others in a mutually interdependent system
change is difficult and costly. But when the culture is less highly
integrated so that work, play, family, religion and other activities are
less dependent upon one another change is easier and more frequent. A
tightly structured society wherein every person's roles, duties,
privileges and obligations are precisely and rigidly defined is less givenmunotes.in
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89to changes than a more l oosely structured society wherein roles, lines
of authority, privileges and obligations are more open to individual
rearrangement.
4) Attitudes and Values: To people in developed nations and societies
change is normal. Children there are socialized to an ticipate and
appreciate change. Societies differ greatly in their general attitude
toward change. People who revere the past and preoccupied with
traditions and rituals will change slowly and unwillingly. When a
culture has been relatively static for a lon g time the people are likely to
assume that it should remain so indefinitely. They are intensely and
unconsciously ethnocentric; they assume that their customs and
techniques are correct and everlasting. A possible change is unlikely
even to be seriously c onsidered. Any change in such a society is likely
to be too gradual to be noticed.
A rapidly changing society has a different attitude toward change and
this attitude is both cause and effect of the changes already taking
place. Rapidly changing societie s are aware of the social change. They
are somewhat skeptical and critical of some parts of their traditional
culture and will consider and experiment with innovations. Such
attitudes powerfully stimulate the proposal and acceptance of changes
by individua ls within the society.
Different groups within a locality or a society may show differing
receptivity to change. Each and every changing society has its liberals
and its conservatives. Literate and educated people tend to accept
changes more readily than the illiterate and uneducated. Attitudes and
values affect both the amount and the direction of social change. No
society has been equally dynamic in all aspects and its values determine
in which area -art, music, warfare, technology, philosophy or religio ni t
will be innovative.
5) Cultural Factors: Cultural Factor influences the direction and
character of technological change Culture not only influences our social
relationships, it also influences the direction and character of
technological change. It is not only our beliefs and social institutions
must correspond to the changes in technology but our beliefs and social
institutions determine the use to which the technological inventions will
be put. The tools and techniques of technology are indifferent to the use
we make of them. For example the atomic energy can be used for the
production of deadly war weapons or for the production of economic
goods that satisfy the basic needs of man.
The factories can produce the armaments or necessaries of life. Steel
and iron can be used for building warships or tractors. It is a culture
that decides the purpose to which a technical invention must be put.
Although technology has advanced geometricall y in the recent past,munotes.in
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90technology alone does not cause social change. It does not by itself
even cause further advances in technology. Social values play a
dominant role here. It is the complex combination of technology and
social values which produces cond itions that encourage further
technological change. For example the belief or the idea that human life
must not be sacrificed for wants of medical treatment, contributed to
the advancement in medical technology. Thus cultural factors play a
positive as wel l as negative role in bringing about technological
change.
Cultural factors such as habits, customs, traditions, conservatism,
traditional values etc may resist the technological inventions. On the
other hand factors such as breakdown in the unity of soc ial values, the
diversification of social institutions craving for the new thoughts,
values etc may contribute to technological inventions. Technological
changes do not take place on their own. They are engineered by men
only. Technology is the creation of man. Men are always moved by
ideas, thoughts, values, beliefs, morals and philosophies etc. These are
the elements of culture. These sometimes decide or influence the
direction in which technology undergoes change. Men are becoming
more and more materiali stic in their attitude. This change in the attitude
and outlook is reflected in the technological field. Thus in order to lead
a comfortable life and to minimize the manual labour man started
inventing new techniques, machines, instruments and devices.
6) Technological Factors: The technological factors represent the
conditions created by man which have a profound influence on his life.
In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfil his needs and to make his life
more comfortable man creates civilization. Te chnology is a by -product
of civilization. When the scientific knowledge is applied to the
problems in life it becomes technology.
Technology is a systematic knowledge which is put into practice that is
to use tools and run machines to serve human purpose . Science and
technology go together. In utilizing the products of technology man
brings social change. The social effects of technology are far -reaching.
According to Karl Marx even the formation of social relations and
mental conceptions and attitudes a re dependent upon technology. He
has regarded technology as a sole explanation of social change.
W. F. Ogburn says technology changes society by changing our
environment to which we in turn adapt. These changes are usually in
the material environment and the adjustment that we make with these
changes often modifies customs and social institutions.munotes.in
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91A single invention may have innumerable social effects. The loss of
human freedom and the large -scale destruction of human beings are
due to the increasing us e of certain types of technology which has
begun to threaten the life support systems of the earth as a whole.
Check your progress
Q-Explain in detail the factors of social change.
____________________________________________________________
____________ ________________________________________________
_________ ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________ _________________
5.5 REASONS OF SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA
It is true that Indian society is changing and certain directions of
social change and development are clearly apparent, but still we have not
been able to achieve all those goals which we wanted to achieve. There are
many reasons behind this obstacles. So me western scholars like Gunnar
Mydral suggest that the main cause of India’s economic weakness is not
lack of technical skills among the people but rather lack of initiative, of
interest in improving their status, and of respect for labour. Such views ar e
illogical, biased, and vigorously challenged by Indian and some western
scholars like Morris (1967), Milton Singer (1966, 1969), T.N. Madan
(1968), Yogendra Singh (1973), and S.C. Dube (1982).
Number of studies in rural India have shown keen desire on t he
part of the villagers for improvement. They are willing to work hard,
change their harmful customs, eschew temptations, and rise above human
unreliability. The obstacles to developmental efforts are not human factors
but political environment, social st ructures, and economic handicaps.
1. Forces of Tradition: Change in a society is possible only by promoting
attitudes of acceptance towards new ways of doing things. Sticking to
the traditions & cultures and refusing to accept new ideas act as a
barrier to social change. The degree of cultural accumulation and the
amount of contact with other societies de termine the nature and extent
of social change within a society.
Isolated societies experience little change, whe reas societies which
meet different people from different cultures experience rapid social
change. People refuse to intermingle easily & freely and decline to
share other people’s traditions, customs, knowledge, technology and
ideologies in a society which does not want to change or accept change.
This is because they believe that their traditions are sacred and the
merit of traditions are derived from transmission from a sacred
orientation.munotes.in
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92The possibility of invention and the introduction of new traits from
other cul tures is limited by the degree of cultural accumulation. which
depends upon the willingness to discard traditions which are
dysfunctional and non -utilitarian. What transpires through contacts with
other cultures is diffusion, the source of m ost social change.
Traditional norms perform a stabilising function in the society.
Traditionally transmitted norms are accepted because they fill the need
to have rules in a given situation. The role that traditional norms play in
an economically and tec hnically changing soci ety depends on the place
which tradition -oriented behaviour holds in society. In traditional
society, traditional values are given importance because they have been
transmitted from the past. But in modern society, the conditions for
change are welcomed be cause they offer solutions to present problems.
2. The Values: The role played by values in social change is a
controversial topic. Hegel felt that social change was a result of the
unfolding of ideas. Marx felt that values had no effect on long -term
social change. He felt that social change was exclusively a result of the
interplay of economic forces and was manifested in class struggle.
Most of the In dian sociologists agree that values influence both
individual and collective beh aviour and thereby influencing social
processes. They also feel that values are the result of change and should
not always be considered as a primary factor in the social change. The
values of caste system like hierarchy, pollution, endogamy, etc. were a
great barrier in changing the In dian society.
Geographical mobility and consequently social mobility became
possible only when technology and industrialisation were accepted by
common people. Hard work and social change was also prevented by
fatalism. Pre viously famines, floods, earthquakes, poverty,
unemployment were all considered to be the result of God’s wrath. But
now in industrial societies, people have proved that some control over
nature is possible and undesirable situation is a challenge to man’s
ingenuity.
Belief in the superiority of one’s culture (Ethnocentrism) prevents
people from accepting things / innovations from other cultures.
Ethnocentrism is so deeply embedded in the minds of Indians that they
easily fall victim to evaluating others i n terms of their own views even
when they are sensitive to the philosophy of cultural relativism. Pride
and dignity prevent people from accepting things / innovations
suggested by others and discard them.
3)Caste System: Caste system has been a great obstacle in achieving both
justice andpros -perity. Kingsley Davis said that the conception of
hereditary occupation is exactly the opposite of the idea of open
opportunities, free competition, increasing specialization and in di
viduals mobility associated with dynamic industrial economy. Castemunotes.in
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93and sub -caste membership is one of the basis of the formation of
factions.
In rural areas factionalism is an important factor in the failure of
development projects. In many areas where farmers belong to one caste,
other castes do not wish to cooperate as it will not be directly beneficial
to them. In areas where farmers are the ruling group, the development
programme likewise fails to gain widespread acceptance. Any project
that apparen tly aids one caste is opposed by all others castes who are
either jealous of their position in society or eager to defend their own
position at everyone else’s expense. Like caste factions, the intra -caste
factions also act as a barrier to social change.
Earlier, restrictions of caste system on interaction with people of other
castes did not permit mobility and industrialisation. Today its use in
politics has prevented rulers to function in constructive ways. Wil liam
Kapp has also pointed out that Hindu culture and Hindu social
organisations are determining factors in India’s low rate of develop
ment. Milton Singer’s contention is that there is no considerable
evidence to indicate that Hindu culture and caste system have had any
dampening effect on India’ s development. He describes Kapp’s
conclusions as largely speculative extrapolations derived from
misunderstood scriptural concepts.
4)Illiteracy, Ignorance and Fear: Ignorance caused by illiteracy creates
fear which resists social change. Customary ways of doing things are
preferred as they have been tried but new is unknown so it has to be
avoided. Opinion about trial in villages or in simple societies is not so
rationalistic. People become accustomed to change and hostility to
change tends to break down, if inventions are determined by the
existing material culture and are frequent. But if material culture
inventions are not frequent, change may be rare and feared. Educated
people generate new ideas, desires, inventions, etc., along with
developing means t o achieve them. While illiteracy promotes hierarchy,
education insists on the idea of equality and rationality.
5. Population Explosion: The nation’s potential for achieving the set
goals is handicapped by explo sion in our population. About 46,500
persons are added to our existing population every day, or 17 million
persons every year, or 170 million people in a decade. The large and
increasing popula tion thus checks our efforts to contain poverty and
bring about rapid development.
6)The Power Elite: Inour country government has been a principal
agency of social change. Government agencies have stimulated and
directed a good part of social change. The development of a society
depends upon the type of political elite. So in government the
innovative and reformist functions depend upon the power elite. Somemunotes.in
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94are committed to community welfare, but many function on the grounds
of vested interests.
Check your progress
Q-Give Reasons of Social Changes in India.
___________________________________________ _________________
____________________________________________________________
_______ _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________
5.6 CHANGE IN RURAL SOCIAL LIFE
As majority of India's people live in rural areas(68.8 %), Indian
society is primarily a rural society. People in rural areas make their living
from agriculture or related occupations. It means agricultural land is the
most important productive resource b ut also an important form of property
for a great for many Indians. Land is not just a ‘means of production’ nor
just a ‘form of property’. Agriculture is not just a form of livelihood but
also a way of life. Our agricultural practices and patterns can be traced to
our agrarian backgrounds. For example, most of the new year festivals in
different regions of India -such as Makar Sankranti, GudiPadwa, Agera in
Maharashtra, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Baisakhi in Punjab, Bihu in Assam,
Ugadi in Karnataka -celebrat e the main harvest season and indicate the
beginning of a new agricultural season.
Agriculture and Culture: India is predominantly a rural country. As per
the 2011 Census, 68.8 per cent of country’ s population and 72.4 per cent
of workforce resided in rural areas. Agriculture and culture are closely
related. The nature and practice of agriculture varies greatly across the
different regions of the country and these variations are reflected in the
different regional cultures. It is said that both the culture and social
structure in rural India are closely bound up with agriculture and the
agrarian way of life. Though agriculture is the single most important
source of livelihood for majority of the rura l population, it is not just
agriculture. There are many activities that support agriculture and village
life and these activities are also sources of livelihood for people in rural
India.
The bara balutedar system was a hereditary village servant system
of twelve trades based on castes used historically in some regions of what
is now the Indian state of Maharashtra. The balutedar used to get paid for
the services provided with the village produce under a complex barter
system. The balutedar system suppor ted the village agricultural sector.
Servants under this system provided services to the farmers and the
economic system of the village. For example : Gurav the Temple Servant,
Nhavi the Barber, Parit the Washermen, Kumbhar the Potter, Sutar the
Carpenter, Lohar the Blacksmith, Teli the oil presser, Sonar the
Goldsmith, etc.munotes.in
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dreamsvacationindia.wordpress.com
Rural life is also supported by many other spec ialists and crafts
persons as story -teller's, astrologer's, priest, water distributors. Even
though these traditional occupations have been declined there is an
increasing interconnection of the rural economies that have led to many
diverse occupations. In rural areas many people are employed in, or have
livelihoods based in rural non -farm activities. For example, there are rural
people employed in government services such as postal services and
education departments, factory workers, or in the army earn th eir leaving
through non -agricultural activities.
A steady transition to urbanization over the years is leading to the
decline in the rural share in population, workforce and the GDP of the
country. Between 2001 and 2011, India’s urban population increas ed by
31.8 % as compared to 12.18 %increase in the rural population. Over fifty
per cent of the increase in urban population during this period was
attributed to the rural -urban migration and re -classification of rural
settlements into urban (Pradhan 2013 ). Population projections indicate that
India will continue to be predominantly rural till the year 2050 after which
urban population is estimated to overtake rural population (United Nations
2012).
Unplanned rural to urban migration, particularly in sear ch of better
economic opportunities, is putting severe pressure on urban amenities and
forcing a large number of low wage migrants from rural areas to live in
unhygienic and deprived conditions. To stop or minimize unplanned
migration from rural to urban a reas and to improve the socio economic
conditions of vast majority of population in the country, there is a need to
make rural economy stronger and create employment opportunities in
rural economic activities.
The improvement in economic conditions of rural households is
also essential to reduce the disparity in per capita rural and urban income
that has remained persistently high. This requires significantly higher
growth in rural economy as compared to urban I ndia. Traditionally,munotes.in
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96agriculture is the prime sector of rural economy and rural employment.
The transition in composition of output and occupation from agriculture to
more productive nonfarm sectors is considered as an important source of
economic growth a nd transformation in rural and total economy of the
country. Several scholars have observed that such transition is taking place
inIndian economy but at a very slow pace. (Aggarwal &Kumar 2012;
Maurya & Vaishampayan 2012; Papola 2012)
Green Revolution: But after Green revolution in the 1960’s and 70’s
there was a drastic change in the productivity and was introduced in those
areas where there was a availability of water and fertile land.
The impact of the Green Revolution on structural change | voxdev.org
The advantages of Green Revolution were that for the first time
India started exporting surplus grains, employment opportunities
increased, the demand for agricultural labour was increased. This was a
great achievement not only for the government but also for the Indian
scientist who created the seeds. There were many disadvantages of Green
Revolution like inequality in the rural areas increased as lower class
practiced subsistence farming and could not produce surplus, but the rich
landlords could afford t o buy the HYV seeds and make profit, there was
displacement of service class (mechanization of agriculture), displacement
of tenants (land taken away from tenants for making extra profit by the
landowners), rich became richer and poor became poorer as paym ent was
shifted from land to cash and the wages were decreased as there was more
demand for agricultural labour.
iasmania.communotes.in
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97Check your progress
Q-Answer in brief the Change in Rural Social Life.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________ _________________________________________________
_________________________________________ ___________________
5.6.1 Changing Village Structure
India is a diverse country with people living with different
cultures, speaking different languages and having different backgrounds.
The geographical, economical and social origin of the people in the
country is the reason behind this interesting dissimilarity. Every village in
India is unique having different story of its evolution. The self -sufficiency
of the c ountry have been influenced by the modern era and have changed
over a period of time.
Infrastructure and lifestyle : So many changes have occurred in the
Indian villages over the period of time. Houses built from mud and thatch
roof are replaced by cement roofs. Wide well -lit roads have been replaced
by the narrow lanes. Hand pumps and wells have been replaced by taps
and continuous water supply. Bullock carts are replaced by two wheelers
and four wheelers. General stores and beauty parlours are there in t he
villages. The traditional dressing pattern off men and women in rural areas
has got a western influence now. Swachh Bharat Mission initiative has
been undertaken by the government to tackle the local sanitation issue.
Government has further worked to en courage the village communities to
use toilets. Awareness programs have been launched to make people
aware about the importance of hygiene and health.
Power: After the land reforms the higher sections of the society had very
little power left and they di dn't feel any advantage in living in the villages
and wanted to explore the urban lifestyle. Modern means of transport and
communication connected the removed cities to the bigger world and
change their thinking and mindset. People started becoming aware o f the
available options in the world and wanted to explore more. The level of
contentment started to decrease in the rural areas with the increased
exposure to the outer world. The higher class interfered with the existing
social and cultural set of the vi llages and try to transform it. The result of
that transformation was the emergence of new face of rural India. The
stability in the rural areas was disturbed and that started a chain of
reactions in the structure of Indian villages.
Livelihood: Apart from agriculture artisan's like Carpenters, Weavers,
Potter's, Goldsmith's , Ironsmiths etc. Has formed a major part of the
livelihood earner. The increasing impact of urban sector, has compelled
the people to try varied sources of income. Many arti sts from rural areas
migrated to cities for a better income. The foreign goods have reduced the
demand for handcrafted ones. With the development all over the country
the demand of cheap foreign goods has undermined the capabilities ofmunotes.in
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98local village artisa ns. The artisans faced a huge competition from the
foreign market and their survival became tough. The self -sufficient
societies started facing disturbance as the use of indigenous products
increased. People started looking for opportunities outside the vi llage as
the equilibrium that was built over the period of time was disturbed.
Economy: Villagers were self -sufficient and produced enough food grains
for their survival. With the introduction of modern era people in rural
areas started migrating to citie s to earn their livelihood resulting in the
village economy showing a major shift. Focus on agriculture and local
handmade products was undermined. Industrialization started dominating
the financial structure of the village communities leading to a major
transformation in the villages. As men started to move out for work
outside the village it altered the gender diversity in the communities.
Demographics: As more and more people started to migrate to the cities
in search of better livelihood, the rural ur ban population of the country has
seen a major shift. As a result the density of population in urban and rural
India change accordingly. Due to the migration of men of villages to the
cities even the gender ratio has changed.
Geography: The cities are ex panding at an increasing pace in the modern
era. In order to develop advanced infrastructure for the cities the farmers
are forced to sell their land at low cost. Village boundaries are shrinking
and the cities are replacing them which has further increase d the migration
of people from rural to urban sector of the country as further scope of
employment is created.
Check your progress
Q-Explain the Changing Village Structure.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______________ _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
6.8 SUMMARY:
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society.
Social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social
behaviours, or social relations. Social change may refer to the notion of
social progress or socio cultural evolution. Social change may be driven
by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. Social
change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change
may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, or
social relations. As far as direction of social change in India is concerned,
there has been considerable cultural continuity along with change based on
imbibing modern values, practices and institutions. Traditional patternsmunotes.in
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99have no t been held static and modern behaviour is commonly fitted into
long-standing pattern of action.
6.9 SELF -STUDY:
Q1.Give the Concept of social change.
Q2.Write short note on Nature of Social Change.
Q3.What are the Factors of Social Change?
Q4.Give Reasons of Social Change.
Q5.Answer in brief the Change in Rural Social Life.
Q6.Explain the Changing Village Structure.
References:
Lalitha N. Dominant Publishers, New Delhi, 2004 -“ Rural Development
in India”.
Sundaram Satya, 2ndrev, Himala ya Publishing House, Mumbai, 2002 “
Rural Development”.
Desai Vasant, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, 2005 -“ Rural
Development in India -Past Present and Future”.
G. Rajnikanth & R. R. Prasad, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi,
2006 -“ Rural Development and Social Change”.
Bhargava Harsh & Kumar Deepak, published by The ICFAI University
press, Hyderabad, 2006 -“ Rural Transformation -Socio Economic
Issues”.
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com
https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/Rural_Econo
my_DP .pdf
https://www.ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2010071.pdf
www.researchgate.net
pubmed.ncbi.nim.nih.gov
prezi.com
FYBA Rural Development IDOL University of Mumbai
munotes.in
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1006
CONCEPT RELATED TO SOCIAL
CHANGE –I
SANSKRITIZATION AND
WESTERNIZATION
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Sanskritization
6.2 Concept and Nature
6.3 Features
6.4 Factors Responsible for Sanskritization
6.5 Limitation of Sanskritization
6.6 Westernization
6.7 Concept
6.8 Features
6.9 Impact ofwesternization onIndian Society
6.10 Summary
6.11 SelfStudy
6.0OBJECTIVES:
1)Toknow theconcept andfeatures ofSanskritization.
2)Tostudy thefactors responsible andlimitations ofSanskritization.
3)Tostudy theconcept andfeatures ofWesternization.
4)Toknow theimpact ofWesternization onIndian Society.
6.1SANSKRITIZA TION
The term ‘Sanskritization’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas the
famous Indian sociologist. He explained the concept of Sanskritization in
his book “Religion and society among the coorgs of South India” to
describe the cultural mobility in the traditional caste structure of Indian
society. M.N. Srinivas in his study of the coorgs of Mysore came to know
that the lower castes we're trying to raise their status i n their caste
hierarchy by adopting some cultural ideals of Brahmins. So they left some
of their ideals which were considered to be impure by the brahmins.
Shrinivas used the term Brahminization to explain this process of mobility
which he later on called it as Sanskritization in a broad sense.munotes.in
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101Srinivas defines Sanskritization as, “Sanskritization is a process by
which lower caste or tribe or any other group changes its customs, rituals,
ideology and way of life in the direction of a higher or more often t wice-
born caste.”
Check your progress
Q-What is Sanskritization? Answer in short.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______ _____________________________________________ ________
_____________________________________ _______________________
6.2 CONCEPT:
Theconcept ofSanskritization wasdeveloped byM.N. Srinivas in
1952. According toSrinivas Sanskritization isaprocess bywhich low
castes take over thebeliefs, rituals, lifestyle andother cultural traits of
those oftheupper castes, especially theBrahmins. Hehasbroadened his
definition ofSanskritization from time totime. Initially, hedescribed itas
“the process ofmobility oflower castes byadopting vegetarianism and
teetotalism tomove inthecaste hierarchy inageneration ortwo. Later on
he,redefined itas“aprocess bywhich alowcaste oratribe orother
groups change their customs, rituals, ideology and way oflifeinthe
direction ofahigh twice -born caste.”
Thesecond connotation ofSanskritization isthus much broader as
first hetalked ofimitation offmere food habits, rituals andreligious
practices butlater onhetalked ofimitation ofideologies toowhich
included ideas ofkarma, dharma, pap, punya, moksha, etc.Intheprocess
ofimitation ofcustoms andhabits ofhigh castebythelowcaste they
discard thepractices thataregood andfunctional toadopt those ideas and
values ofBrahmins which according tothe present standards are
considered degrading anddysfunctional.
Srinivas inhisstudy inMysore hasgiven exampl eshow Low caste
areliberal inthespheres ofmarriage, sexandattitudes towards women.
They permit divorce, widow remarriage and insist onpost-puberty
marriage. Butbrahmins practice pre-puberty marriage, regard marriage
indissoluble, prevent widow fromremarrying andexpect hertoshave her
head andshed alljewellery andostentation inclothes.
They prefer virginity in brides, chastity in wives and continence
and self -restaurant in windows. But as a low caste rises in hierarchy andmunotes.in
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102its ways beco me more sanskritized it adopts the sex and marriage code of
Brahmins. Sanskritization involved taking up all such beliefs and practices
by the lower caste. Sanskritization is nothing but a blind and irrational
imitation of the customs, practices, habits an d values of higher castes
especially the Brahmins.
Check your progress
Q-Give the Concept of Sanskritization.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________ _______________ ____________________________________
_______________________________________ _____________________
Models of Sanskritization:
A) Cultural Model: According to the cultural characteristics of Hindus
the castes have been assigned the high or low status. Wea ring of
sacred thread, giving respect to the religious and mythological stories,
observing endogamy, denying the use of meat and liquor, observing
the restriction in caste system, prohibition of widow remarriage,
worship according to the modes and methods described in the
religious text books, etc. have been given sanctity in traditional
culture. The above mentioned, points are considered to be the
measuring standards of sacredness and purity. As described in
religious texts and byaccepting the above behavi our and code of
highness and purity is a form of Sanskritization.
B) Varna Model: Emulating the life style or ideals of a varna on the basis
of honour and superiority enjoyed by that class is called Varna model
or Sanskritization. In Varna system the hig hest status is given to that
of Brahmin followed by Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Antyaj or the
lowest is the fifth Varna that is the lowest and untouchable on in the
Varna system. the lower caste cope with the ideals and life style of the
superior castes .
C) Local Model: Some castes are considered to be more respectful than
others on account of their economic power. These caste may be called
the “master caste” or the “dominant caste”.
So in -order to improve their status the lower caste copies the life style
of the local dominant caste.munotes.in
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103Check your progress
Q-What are the different models of Sanskritization?
____________________________________________________________
__________________ __________________________________________
_______ _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________
6.3 FEATURES OF SANSKRITIZATION:
When the concept of Sanskritization emerged in sociologica l
literature in 1952 it was agreed that it is useful to analyse social change
among villagers, especially in terms of culture change. Both Indian and
foreign social anthropologists reacted to the usefulness of concept on the
basis of whatever is available in sociological research material.
1. It is a Cultural Paradigm: Ideas, beliefs, traditions, rituals and as such
things constitute the culture of a caste and the change in these aspects of
social life is a change in cultural life. So we can say Sanskritization is a
cultural change among the lower caste and non -caste gro ups.
2. Sanskritization is a Change Directed to Twice -born Castes: Initially
Sanskritization meant Brahmanization, later on Srinivas included other
models of higher caste for imitation. Miltonsinger (1964) drew
attention of Srinivas by saying that there existed not one or two
modelsof sensitization but three if not four. He said that the local
version of Sanskritic Hinduism may use the for labels Brahmin
Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra, but the defining content of these labels
vary with locality and needs to be empirically determined for any
particular locality. For example, a particular village may imitate
Brahmins as their model of change but looking to the historicity and
contextuality other village may decide Kshatriya or Vaishya as their
model. Neither brahmins nor the Kshatriyas in all cases are
homogeneous. It is a local history and the contexts that determine the
Sanskritic model for the lower caste.
3. Sanskritization also Applies to Tribal or Non -Caste Groups: Srinivas
in his redefined definition of Sanskritization Said that it is not only
confined to Hindu castes but also it occurs among tribal and semi -
tribal groups for example bhills of western India, the Gonds and Oraons
of central India and the Pahadis of the Himalayas. These tribal groups
claim to attain the status of the caste, i.e., to become a Hindu.munotes.in
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1044. Sanskritic Values, Ideology, Beliefs belong to Indian
Tradition: Srinivas has in his view the caste -Hindu traditions whenever
he talks of Sanskritization of the lower castes. The values and beliefs
held in the scriptures like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishads and
Brahmanas form the content material for the imitation of the lower
castes. As the Brahmins interpret the traditions, they become the model
of imitation for the lower castes. Proc urement of wealth and power
make a group or person belonging to a caste important.
But, only wealth and power do not enhance the status of a casts. The
lower caste can improve their hierarchy in the caste system by
improving only the ritual status. The im itation of the customs and
habits of the higher caste goes a long way in imparting Sanskritic status
to the lower caste if they have wealth and power.
5. Sanskritization in other words is Teetotalism: Srinivas has refined
and redefined his understanding of Sanskritization. Later he also found
that the lower castes in Sanskritization have a tendency to move higher
in the caste hierarchy and they could improve their status in caste
hierarchy by adopting and teetotalism in a generation or two. There are
no reports as such by any researcher that a lower caste has improved its
rank in the hierarchy despite having three generations, but they have
taken to the prohibition of alcoholism and many of the evils which
traditionally characterised their caste.
Check your progress
Q-What are the features of Sanskritization?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________ _________________________________________
_________________ ________________________________ ___________
6.4 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SANSKRITIZATION
Factors responsible for Sanskritization are spread of literacy,
western technology, industrialization, occupational mobility and
developed communication system. Developed communication system
carried Sanskritization to the inaccessible areas and the spread of literacy
carried it to groups that were very low in the caste hierarchy.
M.N. Srinivas specifically referred to one factor that helped the
spread of Sanskritization amongst the low castes and that is “The
separation of rituals acts from the accompanying the mantras i.e. citationsmunotes.in
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105facilitating the spread of Brahminical rituals among all Hindu castes
including the untouchables.
Sanskriti zation was made feasible as the restrictions that were
imposed by the brahmins on the non -twice born castes banned only the
chanting of mantras from the Vedas. As a result the low caste could adopt
social practices of the Brahmins.
Prohibition of a Sansk ritic value has been mentioned in the
constitution of India and some states have introduced it wholly or
partially. According to M.N. Srinivas the political institution of
parliamentary democracy, have also contributed to the increased
Sanskritization.
Check your progress
Q-What factors were responsible for Sanskritization?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________ ________________________________________________
__________________________________________ __________________
Effects of Sanskritization:
1. Sanskritization in Social Field: The social aspect of Sanskritization is
very important from the view point of cha nge. To elevate their social
status and get higher status in caste hierarchy the low caste individuals
are inclined towards Sanskritization.
2. Sanskritization in Living Patterns: Living patterns of the lower castes
have also been Sanskritized as like higher castes they also build pucca
houses for them, keep them clean and also dress like the higher caste.
Without any fear or hesitation they sit along with the higher castes.
3. Sa nskritization in Economic Field: As clean trades are a symbol of
social light, the lower caste people have given up un -cleaned
occupation to raise their economic status.
4. Sanskritization in Religious Field: Lower castes people put on sacred
thread like b rahmins and go to their temple regularly and perform Arti
and Bhajan. They also have left prohibited food and un -cleaned
occupations and even are specialized in performing ceremonies like
Brahmans.munotes.in
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106Check your progress
Q-What are the effects of Sanskritiz ation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________ ____________________________________________
______________________________________________ ______________
6.5 LIM ITATION OF SANSKRITIZATION:
1.Religion isSuiGeneris forSrinivas: Srinivas isconcerned only with
thecultural andnormative criteria which bring change intherural
society. The weakness oftheconcept ofSanskritization isthat itis
concerned only with theculture andeconomic andpolitical parameters
areoverlooked byhim. Theconcept ofSanskritization istheconcept of
religion.
2.Hierarchy isSupreme: The concept of Sanskritization is based on
hierarchy. In contemporary India, democratisa tion has become a new
value, hierarchical transformation is increasingly becoming weak.
3.Social Tensions andContradictions By-passed: For Srinivas, the idea
of India society is that of caste society. He alto gether forgets that Indian
society is a plur al society, it does not discriminate individuals on the
basis of caste. Caste and class, theoretically speaking, are prin ciples of
social status determination, hence not concerned with ‘rural’ or ‘urban’
people as such. ‘Rural’ and ‘urban’ are patterns of living and not
principles of ranking.
4.Sanskritization May Lead toInter -Class Hostility: Sanskritization
manifests suppressed inter -class hostility not in the form of rejecting
the caste system but in the form its victims trying to seize control of it
and, thereby, expiate their frustrations on the same battlefield where
they acquired them. Only then can there be a sense of satisfac tion in
something achieved, i.e., tangible, concrete, and relevant to past
experience.
5.Sanskritization isaLimited Concept: One of the weaknesses of
Sanskritization is its limited useful ness. It refers only to social change
in the caste hierarchy. Caste hier archy is basicallyritual -cultural
hierarchy. In secular hierarchy Sanskritization ceases of exist.
6.ItisaProcess Confined tooLittle Tradition Only: Sanskritization is
a process of social change. Theoreti cally, “Sanskritization maymunotes.in
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107represent changes in cultural structure, of the little as well as the great
tradition. But most empirical observa tions of this process are confined
to the little tradition”.
7.Sanskritisation Sometimes isaProtest Against theNormative
Structure: Empirical observations in some parts of rural India show
that the lower castes have rebelled against the Sanskritic values of the
higher castes and such protests have resulted out of the democratic
values given by education, party ideology and idiom of equality.
8.Weakening Dominant Caste also Lowers Sanskritization: The
concept of dominant caste is a supplement to the concept of
Sanskritization butin modern India, the construct of dominant caste is
fast becoming irrelevant. Brahmins are no more a dominant caste in
many of the villages. Dominance carries power, professional status and
party association. The developed villages now ha rdly consider
dominant caste as their reference models for Sanskritization.
9.Power Acquisition andPolitical Participation areMore Important
than Cultural Status: Sanskritization is no longer as func tional as is
political participation for achieving a change in style of life and a rise
in the Indian social system, now composed of both caste and class
elements.
For Lynch, Rowe, Singer and others Sanskritization is basically a
concept of social mobility. Y.B. Damle has applied Merton’s reference
group t heory to analyse social change in rural India. It is argued that
Sanskritization is very limited in its scope, whereas reference group
theory is quite comprehensive.
Check your progress
Q-What are the limitations of Sanskritization?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________ ________________________________________________
__________________________________________ __________________
6.6WESTERNIZAT ION
Westernization isanimportant process ofsocial change. Ithas
taken place inIndia asaresult oftheBritish rule which hadproduced
radical andlasting changes inIndian social setup. TheBritishers brought
with them new technology, values, instit utions, knowledge andbeliefs. Itmunotes.in
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108isdefined as“The process orchanging lifestyle oftheIndians towards the
West .”Westernization isaprocess whereby societies come under or
adopt western culture inareas like industry, technology, lifestyle, diet,
law,politics, economics, language, clothing, religion, values, alphabets
andphilosophy.
Westernizati onhasinfluenced theworld with anaccelerating pace
inthelastfewcenturies. The overall process ofwesternization isoften
two-sided process. Inthehope ofattaining awestern lifeorsome aspects
ofit,western influences andinterests themselves havejoined with parts of
theaffected society ataminimum tochange towards amore westernized
society. While western societies arethemselves affected bythisprocess
andinteraction with non-western groups.
Types ofwesternization:
Westernization took placeintwophases onthebasis ofinfluence
ontheboth little and great tradition. The two phases areprimary
westernization andsecondary westernization. Thelittle tradition istermed
asprimary westernization andthegreat tradition istermed assecon dary
westernization.
Primary Westernization:
According to Prof. Y. Singh Westernization means, “Changes
induced by the western impact on Indian little traditions.” These changes
are of two types:
1)The emergence of westernized sub -cultural pattern limi ted to a specific
group of Indians within an area who first came in contact with the
western culture.
2)Primary westernization refers to the process of general diffusion of
western cultural traits resulting from the cultural contact with the
Britishers. For e.g. the use of new technology, changes in habits, way
of living, language, dress and food.
Secondary Westernization:
Secondary westernization started towards the end of the 19th
century at the beginning of the 20th century and refers to the changes
which have contributed to the growth of various forms of cultural
structures extending over the whole country. The examples of cultural
structure are education, technology, science, law, transport and
communication facilities.munotes.in
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109Check your progress
Q-Whatiswesternization andgive itstypes?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________ ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________ _____________________
6.7CONCEPT AND NATURE
Theconcept ofwesternization iseasy tounderstand butdifficult to
explain. Westernization istheadoption ofthepractices andculture of
western European Western Europe bysocieties andcountries inother parts
oftheworld, whether through compulsion orinfluence. Westernization
reached many parts oftheworld aspartoftheprocess ofcolonialism and
itcontinues tobeasignificant cultural phenomenon asaresult of
globalization.
Westernization isaterm used todenote theprocess ofadoption of
thewestern culture, style, language andphilosophies. Westernization has
greatly affected andinfluenced oursociety inboth positive andnegative
way. Being westernized makes oneself feelconfident amongst thecrowd.
Stepping inthewestern culture wasaboon tothesociety, asithelped the
individual toface thesociety with asingle mode ofcommunication anda
similar wayofdressing.
Theconcept wasalsoconstructed byM.N. Srinivas todescribe the
process ofsocial andcultural mobility inthetraditional social structure of
India. hedefined westernization as“Thechange brought about inIndian
society andculture asaresult ofover 150years ofBritish rule, theterm
subsuming changes occurring atdifferent levels intech ology, ideology,
values andinstitutions.”
Thecolonial rulebrought with itexploitation andsuppression of
themasses ofpeople both intherural andurban areas. Butatthesame
time, italsobrought certain radical changes inIndian society culture. The
British rule develope dcommunications, railways, post and telegraph,
schools andcolleges alsowasstarted. Theland wassurveyed, revenue was
settled, anew bureaucracy emerged andarmy, police andlawcourts also
were established.
The Christian missionaries working indifferent parts ofthe
country including thebackward and inhabited regions bytribal and
untouchables theweaker sections ofthesociety were brought closer tomunotes.in
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110westernization. Incontemporary India tremendous change occurred in
rural India while talking about westernization. Thefiveyear plans brought
the village people inthe wider network ofcommunication and
modernisation. Panchayati Rajademocratic institution andmassive spread
ofeducation brought thevillagers tocome closer towesternization.
Check your progress
Q-What istheconcept andnature ofwesternization?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________ _________________________________________________
________ _________________________________ ___________________
6.8FEATURES OFWESTERNIZATION:
1)Itincludes allthechanges thatanynon-western oranyother colonial
country undergoes resulting ofprolonged contact with awestern
culture. Itsubsumes changes occurring atdifferent levels of
technology, institutions, ideology andvalues.
2)The most important area ofchange was thevalue preferences ofthe
non-western societies. Amost important value broadly characterized as
humanitarianism meaning active concern forthewelfare ofallhuman
beings irrespective of social inequalities based on caste, religion, age,
sex or position. Equalitarianism and Secularization form part of the
value humanitarianism.
3)The introduction of reforms and new laws by the British led to several
changes in the Indian customs which were earlier enforced as pa rt of
one’s religious duty. The values of rationality and humanitarianism
were firmly entrenched in the caste -ridden society. The formal system
of education that was introduced by the British played an effective role
in perpetuating these values.
4)Weste rnization is an all -inclusive term covering a wide range of change
from western technology to the experimental method of modern science
and modern historiography. Mass communication, transportation,
industrialization, improved health care facilities and co mfortable
gadgets were made available for better living conditions. These
changes have proved consequential as they were linked with the life of
common man.munotes.in
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1115)The process of Westernization in India was uneven as only a tiny
fraction of Indian population came into direct or face to face contact
with the British, but did not always become a force of change.
6)The process of westernization has neatly intensified in many ways since
1947. Extension of the administrative and trading borderlines broke the
centuries old isolation of the different groups inhabiting the remote
areas of the country. Means of transport and communication opened up
avenues for new contacts that helped to remove the internal custom
barriers and integrated the economics of various regi ons in the country.
In other words we can say political and administrative integration,
development of communication, beginning of industrialization and
agricultural development increased geographical and social mobility of
both the elite and the rural poo r laid the foundation of subsequent
nationwide westernization.
7)The form and pace of Westernization of India varied from region to
region and one section of population to another. A group of people
accepted the western attire, diet, manners, speech, sp orts while, other
group absorbed western science, knowledge and literature, remained
free from external attributes of westernization. For instance the
Brahmins accepted the western style of dressing and appearance, sent
their kids to westernized schools an d used gadgets like radio, car etc.
But the British diet, dancing, hunting and the casual attitude was not
accepted.
8)It creates many inter contradictory forces contradict each other rather
than consolidating. Westernization has given birth not only to
nationalism but also revivalism, communalism, casteism, linguism,
regionalism etc. in the political and cultural fields.
Check your progress
Q-Give thefeatures ofwesternization.
____________________________________________________________
_____________ _______________________________________________
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
6.9 IMPACT OF WESTERNIZATION ONINDIAN
SOCIETY
There wasimmense sociological significance with theconfrontation
oftheIndian tradition andwestern culture. The western tradition hadamunotes.in
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112meaningful impact upon thecultural, political andsocial systems ofIndia.
Itissaid thatsuch acontact initiated anew eraofchange intheIndian
Cultural Tradition. The mode ofwestern cultural impact ontheIndian
tradition haddistinctive features. Western impact wasvisibly noticed in
thefollowing areas.
1)Growth ofaUniversalistic Legal System: Formerly thelegal system
inIndia was founded ontheprinciples ofhierarchy andholism. But
westernization process brought initswake new legal norms
contributing totheuniversalistic positive form oflawinIndia. The
principle ofhierarchy wasstrictly followed inwhile disbursing justice.
Different forms oflegal innovation based ontheprinciples of
universalism, rationalism andindividualism were introduced bymaking
thenew judicial system individual oriented anduniversalistic after the
British came into power. The legal innovations enacted legislations
introducing social reforms insensitive areas likemarriage customs –
theageofmarriage, theageofconsent formarriage, also established
theprinciple ofequality andaconsciousness ofpositive rights among
thedown -trodden castes.
2.Impact ofWesternization onEducation: Traditionally thecontent of
education was metaphysical butcontemporary education iswestern
originated. Traditional education structure washereditary andaclosed
oneandwasconfin edtotheupper classes orthetwice born castes. The
roles ofboth theteachers andtheteachings were qualitative -ascriptive.
Modern education has fundamentally different orientation and
organization with liberal content and scientific world -view.
Profes sional structure ofmodern education isnotascriptive andcanbe
achieved bymerit byanyone inthesociety. The major themes of
modern education arehumanism, equality and denial offaith in
discrimination.
3)Impact on the Communication Network: The media of
communication, telegraph, modern postal, railways, other modes of
transport like roadways and waterways and communication were
introduced inIndia through thewestern contact. Theconcept ofpurity
andpollution wasgiven discount aspeople from allcastes travelled in
thesame railway coach orbus.
4)Growth ofNationalism: Nationalism and democracy inthe
contemporary form arelegacy ofwesternization. Nationalism implies
consciousness ofone’s nationhood anddemocracy isaspecial form of
politic alorganization andsystem ofvalues onwhich nation -state can
befound. Feeling ofnationality andrespect fordemocratic norms isamunotes.in
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113consequence ofwesternization. Many thenationalist leaders ofthe
freedom struggle inIndia gotinspiration from thewesternthoughts and
theliterature.
5)There wasanimpact onfood habits andmode ofeating. Westernization
made animpact onthefood habits andthewayofeating. Sitting onthe
ground toeatmeals wasreplaced bythedinning table. Eating onleaves
and metals like brass, bronze and silver plates was replaced with
stainless steel utensils, spoons, etc.New mode ofeating contributed to
anincrease insecularization andtheritual actstraditionally performed
before andafter meals were almost dropped. Chan ging food habits
brought people nearer tomodern food technologies. Ghee wasreplaced
byvegetable oilboth inrural andurban areas. eating meat andeggs by
higher caste increased.
6)Westernization made animpact onthedressing pattern ofthepeople
bothinrural andurban areas. People started using factory made clothes
like nylon, terylene, terry-cotetc. instead ofhome -spun clothes.
Readymade garments were alsopopular amongst thepeople. Oldstyle
shirts were replaced bythemodern style shirts. Gradual weakening of
ideas ofritual purity wasseen.
7)Entry ofEnglish language wasseen inthedialects oftherural people.
Words likecourt, collector, judge, barrister, etc.were popularised with
theexpansion ofcivil administration. Terms likerail,station, signals
were taken from transport facilities. Politicization introduced theterms
likeparty, socialism, communism, ministry, etc.andmedical terms like
injections, mixture, penicillin, etc and household terms were
introduced.
8)Modernizat ionofthetradition took place inIndia duetotheimpact of
westernization. modern education, increased utilitarian and rational
values oftheIndian elite ledthem tomake sharp criticism oftheir own
culture. Traditional culture started toweaken duetotheloathing and
longing foranew culture, theraising aspirations ofpopulation for
better future made them sortoutwhat was desirable andvice versa.
Today Indian people aremore individualistic, free thinking andlead
relatively amore freelife.
9)Noticeable changes were seen inthematrimonial relationship dueto
westernization. Relationship between twofamilies transformed tothe
relationship oftwoindividuals i.e.husband andwife andthey treat each
other asfriends and companions. Religion was side lined bythe
concept oflove marriage.munotes.in
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11410) In western culture Joint family system was replaced by the
individualistic ideology of family which gave importance to the
individual over the group. This cut the very root of joint family
system. Member s in a family today prefer freedom to enjoy marital
life wherein the brides do not like to remain under the control of the
in-laws. New democratic conventions found their place in household
affairs too.
11)Westernization paved the way for the status of women today. We find
women getting their due in all the fields. Education generated and
encouraged liberal ideas among men and also prepared women to
strive for natural status of equality.
12)Impact of wester n education along with science brought significant
changes in the perception of religion. Logical interpretation and
acceptance replaced the uncritical acceptance of religious ideas.
Social value of religion changed from a collective activity to an
individ ualistic activity. In the past social, economic, political scenes
were dominated by religion but now its evolving more or less as an
independent institution.
13)The impact of the west is seen easily as far as customs are concerned.
Initially the Indians were not kin to accept the ways of the west but
now following their path from clothes to houses which has become a
status symbol. Decorative pieces, cosmetics, crockery, the greeting
style all have become westernized.
14)Indian art and culture too were i nfluenced by the English literary
tradition. Romanticism, Psychiatrism, Experimentalism, Hedonism
have found place in literary expression and Indian poetry. Freedom,
equality, environment, social movement and other related topics
found place in Indian art and literature. As modern art is radically a
different concept and a by -product of westernization was not easily
accepted.
15)Social evils in a way were responsible for making the Indian society
vulnerable to foreign annexation. It could be given a deter mined fight
after the process of westernization took its roots. A few social workers
had raised their fingers against the social evils but the process of
westernization prepared a broad base through which efforts against
these evils could bear fruit. Scien ce and technology from the west
have done some mystifying effect on the social evils like widow
burning, ban on widow marriage, infanticides, stealing of children for
slavery, widow burning, untouchability.munotes.in
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115Check your progress
Q-What istheimpact ofwesternization onIndian society?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________ ____________________________________________________
______________________________________ ______ ________________
6.10 SUMMARY:
The term ‘Sanskritization’ was conceived by M.N. Srinivas the
famous Indian sociologist. The concept ofSanskritization was
developed byM.N. Srinivas in1952. According toSrini vas
Sanskritization isaprocess bywhich lowcastes take over thebeliefs,
rituals, lifestyle andother cultural traits ofthose oftheupper castes,
especially theBrahmins. When the concept of Sanskritization emerged in
sociological literature in 1952 it was agreed that it is useful to analyse
social change among villagers, especially in terms of culture change. Both
Indian and foreign social anthropologists reacted to the us efulness of
concept on the basis of whatever is available in sociological research
material. Factors responsible for Sanskritization are spread of literacy,
western technology, industrialization, occupational mobility and
developed communication system. De veloped communication system
carried Sanskritization to the inaccessible areas and the spread of literacy
carried it to groups that were very low in the caste hierarchy.
Westernization isanimportant process ofsocial change.
Westernization took place intwophases onthebasis ofinfluence onthe
both little andgreat tradition. Thetwophases areprimary westernization
andsecondary westernization. The little tradition istermed asprimary
westernization and the great tradition istermed assecondary
westernization. The concept ofwesternization iseasy tounderstand but
difficult toexplain. Westernization istheadoption ofthepractices and
culture ofwestern European Western Europe bysocieties andcountries in
other parts oftheworld, whether throughcompulsion orinfluence. There
was immense sociological significance with theconfrontation ofthe
Indian tradition and western culture. The western tradition had a
meaningful impact upon thecultural, political andsocial systems ofIndia.
6.11 SELF STUDY
Q-What is Sanskritization? Answer in short
Q-Give the Concept of Sanskritization.
Q-What are the different models of Sanskritization?
Q-What are the features of Sanskritization?
Q-What factors were responsible for Sanskritization?munotes.in
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116Q-What are the effects of Sanskritization?
Q-What are the limitations of Sanskritization?
Q-What iswesternization andgive itstypes?
Q-What istheconcept andnature ofwesternization?
Q-Give thefeatures ofwesternization.
Q-What istheimpact ofwesternization onIndian society?
References:
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/rural -
sociology/sans kritisation -characteristics -and-criticisms -of-
sanskritisation/31939
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/rural -
sociology/westernisation -origin -and-characteristic -of-
westernisation/31941
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Westernization
https://www.iilsindia.com/blogs/westernization -a-boon -or-curse -
to-the-society/
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/westernisation/westernization -
in-india -types -and-primary -westernization/47758
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/sanskritisation -concept -
features -and-factors -promoting -sanskritisation/39339
https://www.sociologylens.in/202 1/02/westernization -features -and-
impact -on.html
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sanskritisation/sanskritization -
meaning -characteristics -models -and-effects/47756
munotes.in
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1177
CONCEPT RELATED TO SOCIAL
CHANGE -II
MODERNIZATION
Unit Structure
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Concept of Modernization
7.4 Nature of Modernization
7.5 Causes or Factors of Modernization
7.6 Process of Modernization in Rural Areas
7.7 Summary
7.8 Self Study
7.1 OBJECTIVES:
1) To study the concept of modernization.
2) To understand the nature and causes or factors of modernization.
3) To study the process modernization in rural areas.
7.2 INTRODUCTION:
The term ‘Modernization’ is a broader and complex term.
According to S. H. Alatas, “modernization is a process by which modern
scientific knowledge is introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose
of achieving a better and more satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the
term accepted by the society concerned.” Prof. Yogendra Singh says,
“Modernisation symbolises rational attitude towards issues and their
evaluation but not f rom particularistic point of view. Modernization is
rooted in the scientific worldview and it has deeper and positive
association with levels of diffusion of scientific knowledge, technological
skills and resources.”munotes.in
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118
faridanazg.wordpress.com
The Indian society, since independence is engaged in the
tremendous task of transformation from a traditional hierarchical, poverty
stricken society to a moral equalitarian and affluent society. Modernisation
has been envisaged for all levels of cultural a nd structural systems through
politicization of every sector of social organization by the introduction of
adult suffrage and a federal form of political structure, legal reforms
affecting the foundations of traditional Hindu marriage and family
structure, community development projects coupled with land reforms,
and local level management and administration of justice. The process of
modernization of Indian tradition was initiated by the British resulting in a
multiplicity of changes in Indian culture and social structure. Though the
focus was directed towards modernization it never strengthened different
traditional institutions present in India.
The Indian society to the Britishers appeared a composition of
“discrete plural traditions of castes, sub -castes and tribes devoid of
systematic binding force of a universal nature. As a result the contribution
of the colonial administrator in the process of modernization created such
networks of social structure and culture which were “Modern and pan -
Indian.”At the initial stage modernization of sub -culture began with the
socialization of a small nucleus of trader -cum-middlemen in the western
manner and later to the institution of great tradition. Spread of new means
of communication and transport, urbanization a nd industrialization, social
reforms, expansion of western education, and a universal legal system
were construed as the normative components of modernization in India
resulting in the structural modernization, rational bureaucratic systems of
administrati on and judiciary, industrial bureaucracy and army emerged.
Apart from this a class of political elite, a class of industrial workers and a
national leadership also came into existence. Though the process of
modernization was of the uniform character artic ulation of nationalist
aspiration throughout the country, the growth was selective and segmental.
It failed to pierce the micro Indian social structures of family, caste or
village community due to the policy of least interference.munotes.in
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119Prof. S.C. Dube says, “Modernisation refers toacommon
behavioural pattern characterised bya rational and scientific world view,
growth and ever increasing application of science and technology and
adaptation of new institutions emerged in the society to cope with the new
situation dominated by science and technology.”
C.E. Black in his writing, “Dynamics of Modernisation” defined
modernisation as, ”Modernisation is a process by which historically
evolved institutions are adopted to the rapidly changing functions that
reflect the unprecedented increase in man’s knowledge permitting control
over his environment, that accompanies the scientific revolution”. W.E.
Moore (1961) suggested that a modern society has specific economic,
political and cultural chara cteristics.
Ineconomic sphere amodern society ischaracterised by-
Development in technology, Specialization in economic role, Scope for
saving and investment, Expansion of market (from local to
international). Inpolitical sphere modernisation ofasocietyexpects -
Declining of traditional rulers, Formulation of ideology for the rulers to
handle the power, Decentralization of power among the members of the
society. Scope must be provided to all to participate in the decision
making process.
Inthecultu ralsphere amodernizing society ischaracterised by-
Growing differentiation among the major elements of culture like religion,
philosophy and science, Spread of literacy and secular education,
Introduction of complex institutional system for the advance ment of
specialized roles, Expansion of media communication, Development of
new cultural elements based on:(i) Progress and improvement(ii)
Expression on ability(iii) Emphasis on dignity of the individual and his
efficiency.
Modernisation is a process of adaptation of new values, cultural
elements and technology in the various fields of life. It is indeed the ability
of a society to confront, overcome and prepare itself to meet the new
challenges.
Check your progress
Q-What is modernization?
____________ ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____ _______________________________________________________
___________________________________ _________________________
7.3CONCEPT OF MODERNIZATI ON:
The word modern or modernization is derived from the Latin term
‘MODO’, which means ‘just now’ or ‘the latest’. Oxford English
Dictionary defines the term modern as something of the recent times ormunotes.in
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120something new or latest, not concerned with classic. Thus the literal
meaning of modern or modernization refers to anything which is new or
latest in art, dress, lifestyle or thinking. Modernization involves
Industrialisation, Urbanization, Rationalization, Bureaucratization,
Democratization, Secularization, Sanskritization, Tribalization,
Rationality, Reasoning with Scientific Temper and Outlook.
The term ‘Modernization’ is broad and complex. It is a process
through which modern scientific knowledge is introduced in the society.Its
ultimate purpose is achieving a better and more satisfactory life in the
broadest sense of the term that is accepted by the concerned society.
Modernisation refers to an attempt to adapt themselves to the present time
, conditions, styles, needs and ways in general on the part of the people
particularly for those who are custom -bound. It indicates a change in
people’s ideas, food habits, taste, choices, dress habits, speaking styles,
preferences, values , recreational activities etc. Modernization refers to a
model of an evolutionary transition from a ‘pre -modern’ or ‘traditional’ to
a ‘modern’ society.
Sociologist use the concept of modernization in the analysis of
social change which means the development of modern approach and
outlook and adoption of modernity in everyday life. Modernization refers
to a change in man's way of thinking and feeling and change in his whole
attitude to life’s problems, the society and the universe. Modernisation is a
process of socio -cultural transformation involving process of change in
values, norms, institutions and structures. It implies an inherent change in
the mode of life of an individual in a particular direction for attaining
modernity where in the attitude , idea, outlook and approach are oriented
towards change in that direction.
Due to modernization there is also change in the belief system,
values and way of life on the whole open individual. Modernisation theory
encompass is the world of globalization, where in cultural norms and ideas
are easily spread throughout the world, leading to assort of universal
culture that serves as a baseline for all cultures as societies in the world. It
is a process of transformation of a society from its backward framework to
a forward looking, prospering and progressing structural build up.
Modernisation is an adaptation of new institutions that have emerged in
the society to cope up with the new situation dominated by science and
technology.
The foundations of modernisation theory go back to the age of
enlightenment, when a number of philosophers began to look at how
society changed and progressed. The basic premise of this phase of
modernisation theory was that humans were able to change their society
within a generation which was facilitated by advancements in technology ,
production and consumption.
The process of modernization is not responded in an uniform manner in
all social systems. Herbert Blumer has mentioned five different waysmunotes.in
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121through which a traditional society can respond to the process of
modernization in his writing, “Industrialization and the Traditional Order.”
These five responses are controlled by values , interest or preferences and
occur at different stages of the traditional order and in different
combinations.
1) Rejective response: Rejecting modernization and maintaining
traditional order due to powerful groups, landed aristocracy, oligarchy,
religio us fanaticism, vested interests, social prejudices, special interest
and firm attachment to given forms of traditional life is rejective
response.
2) Conjunctive response: There occurs the co -existence of traditionalism
and modernity without threatening t he old order in this response pattern.
3) Assimilative response: It comprises of the traditional order absorbing
the process of modernization simultaneously retaining the traditional
organizational pattern and life pattern.
4) Supportive response: In thi s response new and modern things are
accepted on the ground that they strengthen the traditional order. The
scope provided by modernization is utilized by the traditional groups and
institutions to pursue the traditional interests in a more effective manne r.
5) Disruptive response: In this response modernization undermines the
traditional order at many points while making adaptation to the changing
situation.
Check your progress
Q-Give the concept of modernization.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________ _______________________________________________
___________________________________________ _________________
Q-What are th e five responses of modernization?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________ ______________________________________________
_________________________________________ ___________________
7.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNIZATION :
1) A Revolutionary Process: A radical change takes place in human life
in the process of modernization. It is the transition from tradition to
modernity with that if change from pre -human to human existence and
from primitive to civilizes societies.munotes.in
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1222) A Complex Process: Moderniza tion is complex process that cannot be
reduced to a single factor or single dimension. It involves changes in all
spheres of human thought and behaviour. Some of the factors of
modernization are: secularization, industrialization, urbanization,
increasing literacy, social mobilization, differentiation, media
expansion, and education and expansion of political participation.
Modernisation background concept ... depositphotos.com
3) A Systematic Process: Modernization is a systematic process. In its
magnitude it changes th e total social system wherein change in one
factor gravitate to produce a complimentary change in another factor.
Various elements of modernization have been highly associated with
each other for the reason that they had gone together.
4) A Global Process: Modernization is a universal process originated in
the 15thand 16thcentury Europe, but now it has become a worldwide
phenomenon. It has been brought about principally through the
dissemination of modern ideas and techniques from the European
venture to almost all parts of the world. The remote development of
non-western s ocieties has also contributed to this. In any event, all
societies which were at one time traditional became modern.
1 modernization and social change bedslideshare.net
5) A Lengthy Process: Modernization does not occur overnight rather it
is evolutionary in nature andtakes much time to occur. Lot of time ismunotes.in
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123required to bring about total changes in society. Forexample, Changes
brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years
of British rule, the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels
… technology, institutions, ideology and values. It may take
generations for societies to move from tradition to modernity.
6) A Phased Process: The process of modern ization progress in phases
and sub -phases. All the societies have to move through some stages
begining with a traditional stage, passing through a transitional stage
and reach the stage of modernity. The patterns of modernization may
differ from society to society but all societies move essentially through
the same phases.
7) A Homogenizing Process: Modernization produces tendencies towards
concurrence among societies. It involves movement towards integration
of societies in the long run so that the forma tion of aworld state can be
contemplated.
8) A Progressive Process: Modernization is imminent and desirable. In
the initial stage modernization causes pain but in the long run it
contributes to human well -being, culturally and materially.
9) An Adaptive Process: Modernization bring before individuals and
groups the need to adapt themselves to the new changes that take place
in society. In the process of rapid socio -economic changes, individuals
are likely to aspire for various positions and are supposed t o perform
different roles.
Cartoon Stock
Those who miss to keep pace with these changes, perish in the process
of modernization. New institutions emerge in order to meet the
demand s of the rapid changes and meet new aspirations of the people.
10) A Dynamic Process: Modernization implies an ongoing process of
change and with the advancement of scientific knowledge and
technical skills, the conditions of life undergo a profound chang e. A
society based on subsistence agriculture, clan or village government is
traditional as compared to modern society which is regulated by
inanimate sources of power and governed by complex organizations
and formal institutions. In the same way the latte r is likely to give way
to a post -modern society articulated by nuclear fission and sustained
by test -tube babies.munotes.in
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124Check your progress
Q-Give the characteristics of modernization.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________ __________________________________________________
________________________________________ ____________________
7.5 CAUSES OR FACTORS OF MODERNIZATION:
A number of factors are responsible for continuity and change in
Indian society and these changes may occur through adaptation or
integration. Adaptation occurs when the existing institutions readjust to
meet new needs and integr ation occurs when a society adopts a new
element and makes it a part of itself. The factors that have enabled our
society to adapt/integrate or failed to adapt/integrate, are political
independence and introduction of democratic values, indus trialisation,
urbanisation, increase in education, legislative measures, social change in
caste system, and social movements and social awareness (like feminism,
globalisation and anti -casteism).
Political Independence and Introduction of Democratic Values:
Today, in dividuals are more concerned with ‘individuality’. Political
independence provides opportunities to all individuals to develop self -
conscious and unconscious orientation towards vital interests and values
that involve identity, status, commitment and desir es.The groups that
were wholly or largely excluded from free social interaction for
generations together now insist on getting discriminatory privileges to rise
in social scale.
The regions that remained economically backward because of the
British polic ies demanded a share in developmental schemes. Ethnic
groups wanted political independence to preserve their cultural identity,
religious groups wanted freedom to teach certain values and subcultural
norms to their members. These desires and demands affect ed the nature of
social change and the process of modernization in India in the last five
decades.
The political independence led to major changes in social structure
of our society and its system of authority by the abolition of the feu dal
systems of z amindari, jagirdari, and the princely states. It revolutionized
the social and economic base of Indian rural society, of which the results
can now be seen everywhere in Indian villages. The liberated tenantry
emerged as the powerful rural middle class, com manding a major voice in
the political domain. The green revolution in the country has largely been
a contribution of this class.
The social and cultural resilience, tolerant indifference towards
Brahmanical tradition, continual involvement in cultural an da g r a r i a n
movements, and a pugna cious utilitarianism provide a major role to thismunotes.in
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125class within the country’s social and economic development which leads
the powerful backward class movement.
Political independence made it possible for the nation to achi eve
credible development and establish a sound foundation of industrial, tech -
nological, scientific and managerial growth. A very substantial
technological manpower has been created.
This class having a broader so cial base, as they come from the
middle and lower caste and social strata of society. The new entrepreneurs
and professional classes in urban areas and the rich peasantry in villages
constituting the middle class in India estimated to be around one -fourth of
its total population. These achieveme nts resulted from the planned
development of society in basic sectors of its life.
Urbanisation: Urbanisation is another factor that has affected the society.
Urban popu lation grew at a faster rate in India in the last few decades. In
themid-eighteenth century, approximately 10 per cent of the population in
India was town -dwellers. During the nineteenth century, the number of
inhabitants of India’s towns grew ten -fold over a hundred years. In the
twentieth century, while the country’s ent ire population grew from 238
million in 1901 to 846.30 million in 1991, the number of town -dwellers
grew by 520 per cent.
The family, kinship, caste and marriage etc., systems in the urban
areas are different from those in the rural areas not only in com position
but also in ideology and functioning. The nuclear families in urban areas
are somewhat smaller compared to the non -urban nuclear family, and that
the urban -dweller is more likely to choose the nuclear family than the
rural-dweller.
Gore (1968) sa id that the urban families showed a shift away from
joint family norms in their attitudes, role perceptions, and in their
behaviour.
Desai (1964), in his analysis of the effect of urbanisation on
jointness, observed significant relationship between the d uration of the
stay of the family in the urban area and tradi tional jointness. His
presumption was that longer the duration of the stay of family in an urban
area, lower will be the degree of jointness.
Changes in cities reflect in many other social sys tems. The kinship
relations in the urban areas are not so close as in the rural areas, only
primary and secondary kin have intimate contacts, but in villages, the
relations are extensively extended to tertiary and distant kin too. The caste
system in the u rban areas is not as rigid as in the rural areas.
The urban living weakened the joint family system and
strengthened nuclear families. Cities provided increas ing opportunities for
new occupations and higher education. Those who deviated from themunotes.in
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126traditio nal family occupation and took to new profes sions showed a
greater shift in their attitudes than those who followed traditional
occupations. Cities provided gainful employment opportunities to the
females. After she started earning she sought freedom in m any spheres.
Urban residence, seemed to introduce a certain measure of variation in
family pattern in Indian society.
Industrialisation: Industrialisa tion brought about economic and socio -
cultural changes in our society. Before industrialisation, India had (i)
agrarian non -monetised economy, (ii) a level of technology where the
domestic unit was also the unit of economic exchange, (iii) a non -
differentiation of occupations be tween father and son and between
brothers and brothers, and (iv) a value system where authority of the
elders and the sanctity of tradition both were supported as against the
criterion of ‘rationality’.
In the economic field, it resulted in specialisation in work, oc -
cupational mobility, monetisation of economy, and a breakdown of link
between kinship and occupational structures. In the social field, it re sulted
in the migration of people from rural to urban areas, spread of education,
and a strong centralised political structure; in the cultural field, it has
brought secularisatio n of beliefs.
There have been three important effects of industrialisation on
family organisation: First, family which was a principal unit of production
was transformed into a consumption unit. This affected not only the
traditional structure of the joi nt family but also the relations among its
members. Secondly, factory employment has freed young adults from
direct dependence upon their families. In the city, in many cases, along
with men, their wives also have started working and earning. This has
affected intra -family relations to some extent.
Finally, children ceased to be economic assets and become
liabilities, educational requirements increased, length ening dependence
upon parental support. Work and home were separated due to
industrialisation.
Some sociologists, however, recently challenged the theory of
emergence of nuclear families due to industrialisation. This challenge is
based on the results of empirical studies and the documentation of the va -
riety of family systems in different parts of t he world. Studies by scholars
like M.S. A Rao, M.S. Gore, and Milton Singer showed that jointness is
more preferred and prevalent in business communities, and many nu clear
families maintain widespread kin ties.
All these changes have modified our family system. The popu -
lation movement from the rural to the urban areas led to decline in
authoritarian power, growth of secularism developed a value system
which emphasized individual initiative and responsibility.munotes.in
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127The effect of industrialisation on the pa ttern of family relationship
is also evident from the decline in self -sufficiency of the family, and
attitudinal changes toward family. Industrialisation contributed markedly
to the creation of a new social and psycho logical setting in which the
survival of the joint family with its authoritarian organisation became very
difficult.
Interaction and com monality among cultural regions too is
reflected in shared cultural traits, also true for large number of
communities across regions and ter ritories. Such cultural traits belong not
only to rituals and institutional practices but also to technologies of
occupation, skills and division of la bour. Most communities moved away
from their traditional occupations and showed keen awareness of
developmental program mes sponsored by the government. This
awareness, together with high aspira tions, introduced a measure of tension
and conflict now manifest in various dimensions of our social life in the
social system.
Increase inEducation: In the modern age, Indian society tried to expand
its educational sys tem because it required more literate and numerate
population. Education not only brought about changes in the attitudes, be -
liefs, values and ideologies of the people but also created and aroused
individualistic feelings. The increasing education not only bring changes
in the philosophy of life of men and women but also provide new ave nues
of employment to the latter. After becoming economically independent,
women demand more voice in family affairs and also ref use to accept
anybody’s dominance over them. This shows how education brings
changes in relations in the family, ultimately leading to the struc tural
changes too.
These people lose contact with the parental family and imbibe new
ways of liv ing and think ing which are inimical to the joint family
sentiment and conducive to the nuclear family.
The effect of educa tion on the people can be through the influence
of the new elite, the home and the school environment.
It is true that the type of contacts of an individual outside the
family do affect his attitudes and beliefs but the educational level of his
own and his family members also is an important factor that changes his
beliefs and ideolo gies. This shows the impact of education on family
pattern. As the level of education rises, the percentage of the nuclear
family increases and the percentage of people who conform to the pattern
of joint family living decreases.
Legislative Measures: Legislative measures made their impact on
society. Prohibition of early marriage and fixing the minimum age of
marriage under the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, and the Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955, have lengthened the period of education and
functionally contributed to the adjustment of couples in new environmentmunotes.in
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128after marriage. The freedom of mate selection and marriage in any caste
and religion without parents’ consent after certain age permitted through
the Special Marriage Act, 1954, sanctioning of widow remarriage by the
Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, the freed om of breaking marriage by
the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and giving share to daughters in paternal
property by the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, have not only modified the
interpersonal relations and the composition of family but also the stability
of joint family.
The Succession Act, 1956, Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856,
the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987, Dowry Prohibition Act,
1961, Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (SIT Act renamed) and In -
decent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Ac t, 1986, have all
contributed to preventing exploitation of and violence against women and
raising their status in society.
The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, the Untouchability Act,
1955 and the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Preventio n of
Atrocities) Act, 1989 have checked the exploitation of weaker sections of
society. Besides these Acts, the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act,
1976, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, Protection of
Human Rights Act, 1993, Equal Re muneration Act, 1976, Muslim Women
(Protection of Right of Divorce) Act, 1986 have provided relief to many
suffering sectors of the society.
Social Movements andSocial Awareness:
Under this section three movements: feminism, globalisation and
anti-casteism will be discussed.
Feminism: Till the 1950s, women in our society were subjugated to men
in all re spects and had secondary and subordinate position in the society.
Today, women have become aware of their rights -they want opportuni -
ties of equality as well as an identity of their own. Though there is a
greater increase in the proportion of women in higher status positions, yet
the rate of violence against women is increasing. The feminist movements
wanted women to be empowered and given opportunitie s to perform roles
of their choice. Social scientists, intellectuals and journalists started
talking in gender -neutral language. The issue of patriarchy and priorities
of women became part of all socio -political discus sions. The feminist
movement develope d the sentiment that mainstream political and public
life became remote from the experi ence and values of the majority. The
feminist slogan “the personal is political” is an ideological expression but
a programme for social change.
Globalisation: Accordi ng to (Malcolm Waters, 1995:3) Globalisation is a
social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural
arrangements recede and in which people became in creasingly aware that
they are receding. Thus, in the process of globalisation, physical distancemunotes.in
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129and obstacle be came less important in communication and exchange in
social (which includes political and economic) and cultural matters.
Years ago, mo bility was more from villages to cities, then it
increased from cities to cities, fro m region to region, and now it has
extended from country to country. Everybody know that people and
objects are conveyed round the world more swiftly than in the past and
that the words and messages can cross the world in minutes and seconds.
Years ago, a message pertaining to trade and commerce or a social,
cultural and even a political message took several weeks and considerable
physical effort to deliver, but now it takes only minutes. Global dimension
to contempo rary life in economics, politics and cu lture is apparent and
with the increase in the various levels of interaction, reactions and
responses it occursquickly at all levels. The interplay at local, state,
national and international levels effected action and identity.
The consequences of global isation among people in India are
recognized in economic, political and cultural fields. The economic effects
are anticipated in the development of trade routes, in the growth of trade,
in economic independency, in the massive flow of capital around the
world, and so on. The political consequence is that block -wise inter -
governmental institutions have developed a global power and presence.
‘Nation -state’ came to be viewed as ‘too small for the big problems of
life’.
The cultural consequence is that “ a common culture has developed
across the globe. Culture here is used in more general terms and refers to a
‘way of life’. This includes not only political, eco nomic and social norms
but also leisure and consumption. Featherstone gives an example of
cultu ral globalisation, the development of global fi nancial markets in
which the main actors share many business and lifestyle norms and values.
Some other areas of consumption like fast food, ‘world’ cars, etc., have
also become globalised. However, cultural globali sation does not mean
that cultural differentiation does not exist”.
Anti-Casteism: There had been movements to oppose caste exploitation
and casteism and in favour of caste equality and giving special privileges
to de pressed caste people. These m ovements had both cultural and
structural dimension. Culturally, they opposed caste -prejudices by
attacking caste restrictions and asserting the reality of social achievements
and social mobility. The structural dimension of anti -casteism focused on
lack o f power within institutions: business, services, education, legisla -
tions, etc.
The forces of change which India encounters today have not only
the functional aspect but also have the dysfunc tional aspect. Cultural,
social and political tensions based on caste, ethnicity and politics of
interest groups rampant today have been a part of this process ever sincemunotes.in
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130independence. As development programmes gain momentum, the social
Inequalities are bound to sharpen further.
Check your progress
Q-Answer in brie f ‘The causes of factors of modernization’
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____ ________________________________________________________
_________________________________ ___________________________
7.6 PROCESS OF MODERNIZATION IN RURAL
AREAS:
Indian society was a traditional society till the 1stquarter of the
twentieth century. Being an agrarian society majority of India’s population
lived in isolated villages and trib al communities. It is necessary to
understand traditional social values in Indian context to understand the
process of modernization in India. Social structure, social institutions,
social interaction and behaviour are all based on social values and any
change in this social structure or social institutions will take place when
there is a change in social values. According to K. M. Pannikar, the social
structure of Hinduism rests on two fundamental institutions -the cast and
a joint family. Prof. Y. Singh holds a view that the normative principles of
Hinduism are based on beliefs, ideas, liberalism, being and becoming,
creation and destruction, utilization and spiritual supremacy.
All aspects of social life in India are permeated by hierarchy, Indian
socie ty has always been stratified by higher and lower groups and the
caste system is one expression of the social hierarchy. Every individual is
looked upon as a member of a group and every group has its own position
in the social hierarchy. There is the autho ritative behaviour from time
immemorial within the family and in the neighbourhood. The social
structure is not hierarchical, but is also based on birth. Status is based on
recognition rather than achievement while social mobility is prohibited.
A unique feature of Indian society is the stronghold of kinship and
kin obligation and this kinship ties extend not only to all members of the
joint family but also to other relatives and members of the same caste. A
strong sense of belonging to the kin group is s een at the time of
celebration may it be marriage festivals and feasts. Concepts of purity and
pollution influence the Hindu social life and are considered important on
occasions like offering of prayer, birth, marriage, death etc. Inmatters of
communal re lation or maintaining physical distance these concepts are
considered important and violation of these rules necessitates purificatory
rites.
Earlier people in India where conservative and their behaviour was
governed by non -utilitarian customs and traditions and illiteracy andmunotes.in
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131ignorance was the dominant feature. The economy was simple and
economic productivity above the subsistence was very low .
The Britishers initiated the process of modernization in India. Since
the beginning of 17th century India it has been under continuous western
influence. After the establishment of British rule in India modern cultural
institutions and other forms of s ocial structure were introduced. It was the
attitude of the British rulers in India that formed a social background of
transformed stratification, social reformation, emergence of Protestantism
, cumulative chain of innovations in science and technology an d a rational
‘individualism’ in the economy and society.
The attitude of the British rulers and administrators determined the
course and nature of modernisation in India to a large extent and this
western rule ‘set the stage’ and established some of t he preconditions of
modernising Indian society. The British rulers brought about protracted
changes in the culture and social structure of Indian society. So Prof. Y.
Singh says “The contributions of the colonial administration in the process
of modernizat ion lay in the creation of such networks of social structure
and culture which were modern and pan –Indian.’
Initially, i.e. during the 17th century modernization of the sub -
culture began with the socialization of small nucleus of traders -cum-
middle m en in the western manner. Later on it led to the institution of a
modernization of great tradition that is spread of means of communication
and transport, industrialization, social reforms -expansion of western
education and a universalistic legal system where interpreted as normative
components of modernisation in India.
The emergence of national bureaucratic system of administration
and judiciary, industrial bureaucracy and army is noted as the structural
modernization. Long standing patterns of social organization where
weakened as large trading firms offered new manufactured goods and
networks of social structure and culture were created which were modern
as well as pan -Indian. New social classes came up due to the impact of
British rule like an urba nized labour force, a growing number of local
entrepreneurs and a new group of intellectuals whose understanding and
aspirations extended far beyond their traditional social groups.
Exposure to the western education created new political culture and
tradition of nationalism; the administrative and defence needs became
complex leading to the growth of bureaucracy and the modern army;
growing technology; and education created a new structure of
technological, professional and intellectual middle class havin g a uniform
character throughout the country. India passed through complex economic
and political development English language provided a gateway to the
newly emerging middle class to the ideology of liberalism that enshrined
the values of liberty equality respect for individual, secularism etc. But the
application of these values was limited in colonial India as it was not
integrated with the micro -structures of the Indian society viz. family, castemunotes.in
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132and village community. The process of modernization was s egmental and
selective because of the autonomy of these micro -structures and a policy
of least interference followed by the British administrators.
Check your progress
Q-What is the process of modernization in rural areas?
_____________________________ _______________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________ _________________________________________
_________________________________________________ ___________
7.7 SUMMARY:
The term ‘Modernization’ is a broader and complex term. The
Indian society, since independence is engaged in the tremendous task of
transformation from a traditional hierarchical, poverty stricken society to a
moral equalitarian and affluent society. Modernisation has been envisaged
for all levels of cultural and structural systems through politicization of
every sector of social organization by the introduction of adult suffrage
and a federal form of political structure, legal reforms affecting the
foundations of traditional Hindu mar riage and family structure,
community development projects coupled with land reforms, and local
level management and administration of justice.
A number of factors are responsible for continuity and change in
Indian society and these changes may occur through adaptation or
integration. Adaptation occurs when the existing institutions readjust to
meet new needs and integration occurs when a society adopts a new
element and makes it a part of itself. Social structure, social in stitutions,
social interaction and behaviour are all based on social values and any
change in this social structure or social institutions will take place when
there is a change in social values. The process of modernization was
segmental and selective beca use of the autonomy of these micro -structures
and a policy of least interference followed by the British administrators.
7.8 SELF STUDY
Q-1 What is modernization?
Q-2Give the concept of modernization.
Q-3 What are the five responses of modernization?
Q-4 Give the characteristics of modernization.
Q-5Answer in brief ‘The causes of factors of modernization’
Q-6 What is the process of modernization in rural areas?
Q-7 Write short note on –‘Social Movements andSocial Awareness’.munotes.in
Page 133
133References:
https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/articles/9 -most -important -
characteristics -of-modernisation/362
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society/modernisation -and-its-impact -on-indian -society/47106
https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/articles/3 -major -factors -which -
promotes -modernization/366
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/india -2/process -of-modernization -
in-india/47428
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/articles/modernisation -
introduction -meaning -concept -and-other -details/47757
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social -change -bed
munotes.in